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In education, a teacher is a person who educates others. A teacher who educates an individual student may also be described as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out by way of occupation or profession at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher at state-funded schools must first obtain professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study which covers a standardized curriculum. A teacher's role may vary between cultures. Teachers teach literacy and numeracy, or some of the other school subjects. Other teachers may provide instruction in craftsmanship or vocational training, the Arts, religion or spirituality, civics, community roles, or life skills. In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling.
Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a parent or sibling or within a family, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting.
Religious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis pastors/youth pastors and lamas may teach religious texts such as the Quran, Torah or Bible.
professional educators
Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family which is called home schooling (see Homeschooling) or the wider community. Formal teaching, may be carried out by paid professionals. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with physicians, lawyers, engineers, and accountants (Chartered or CPA).
A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline.
Around the world teachers are often required to obtain specialized education, knowledge, codes of ethics and internal monitoring.
There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the teaching profession.
The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members, conducting hearings into allegations of professional misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher education programs. In many situations teachers in publicly funded schools must be members in good standing with the college, and private schools may also require their teachers to be college members. In other areas these roles may belong to the State Board of Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the State Education Agency or other governmental bodies. In still other areas Teaching Unions may be responsible for some or all of these duties.
pedagogy and teaching
In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be described as a tutor.
The objective is typically accomplished through either an informal or formal approach to learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge and/or thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider students' background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. Many times, teachers assist in learning outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips. The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise of the internet over the past decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles in the classroom.
The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities and students with learning disabilities.
Teaching using pedogogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on particular skills. Understanding the pedogogy of the students in a classroom involves using differentiated instruction, as well as, supervision to meet the needs of all students in the classroom. Pedogogy can be thought of in two manners. First, teaching itself can be taught in many different ways, hence, using a pedogogy of teaching styles. Second, the pedogogy of the learners comes into play when a teacher assesses the pedogogic diversity of his/her students and differentiates for the individual students accordingly.
Perhaps the most significant difference between primary school and secondary school teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by different subject specialists each session during the week and may have 10 or more different teachers. The relationship between children and their teachers tends to be closer in the primary school where they act as form tutor, specialist teacher and surrogate parent during the course of the day.
This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a "platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here is that students learn from teachers who specialize in one subject and who tend to be more knowledgeable in that one area than a teacher who teaches many subjects. Students still derive a strong sense of security by staying with the same group of peers for all classes.
Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full cognitive potential. Co-teachers work in sync with one another to create a climate of learning.
criticism of the concept of teaching
Traditional education focuses on teaching, not learning. It incorrectly assumes that for every ounce of teaching there is an ounce of learning by those who are taught. However, most of what we learn before, during, and after attending schools is learned without it being taught to us. A child learns such fundamental things as how to walk, talk, eat, dress, and so on without being taught these things. Adults learn most of what they use at work or at leisure while at work or leisure. Most of what is taught in classroom settings is forgotten, and much or what is remembered is irrelevant.
rights to enforce school discipline
Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them.
In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping or birching the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school discipline throughout much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now banned it, but it remains lawful in the United States following a US Supreme Court decision in 1977 which held that paddling did not violate the US Constitution.
30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. It is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it. Corporal punishment in American schools is administered to the seat of the student's trousers or skirt with a specially-made wooden paddle. This often used to take place in the classroom or hallway, but nowadays the punishment is usually given privately in the principal's office.
Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see School corporal punishment.
Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school) - or even to attend school on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some US schools. During detention, students normally have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay, or sit quietly.
A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon the idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehaviour and firm, clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. Teachers are expected to respect their students, and sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen as falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.
Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline. Such individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be able to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment of countries -- in East Asia for instance -- that combine strict discipline with high standards of education.
It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in Western countries. In Japan, for example, although average attainment on standardized tests may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in practice many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at all.
Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, maintaining order in the classroom can take divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated students, ignoring attention-seeking and disruptive students. The result of this is that motivated students, facing demanding university entrance examinations, receive disproportionate resources, while the rest of the students are allowed, perhaps expected to, fail. Given the emphasis on attainment of university places, administrators and governors may regard this policy as appropriate.
obligation to honor students rights
Sudbury model democratic schools claim that popularly-based authority can maintain order more effectively than dictatorial authority for governments and schools alike. They also claim that in these schools the preservation of public order is easier and more efficient than anywhere else. Primarily because rules and regulations are made by the community as a whole, thence the school atmosphere is one of persuasion and negotiation, rather than confrontation since there is no one to confront. Sudbury model democratic schools experience shows that a school that has good, clear laws, fairly and democratically passed by the entire school community, and a good judicial system for enforcing these laws, is a school in which community discipline prevails, and in which an increasingly sophisticated concept of law and order develops, against other schools today, where rules are arbitrary, authority is absolute, punishment is capricious, and due process of law is unknown.
stress
As a profession, teaching has very high levels of stress which are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place.
There are many factors that contribute to stress among teachers. These factors include the amount of time spent in class, preparing for class, counseling students, and traveling to teacher conferences; working with a large number of students with various needs, abilities, disabilities, and cognitive levels; learning new technology; changes in administrative leadership; lack of financial and personnel support; and time pressures and deadlines. While trying to deal with these issues teachers also have to deal with personal problems and issues. These stresses can also affect teaching quality.
There are many healthy and unhealthy forms of stress management. Finding time and ways to relax, developing a healthy lifestyle, accepting what cannot be changed, and avoiding unnecessary stress are all ways to deal with the stresses of teaching.
misconduct
Misconduct by teachers, especially sexual misconduct, has been getting increased scrutiny from the media and the courts. A study by the American Association of University Women reported that 0.6% of students in the United States claim to have received unwanted sexual attention from an adult associated with education - be they a volunteer, bus driver, teacher, administrator or other adult - sometime during their educational career.
A study in England showed a 0.3% prevalence of sexual abuse by any professional, a group that included priests, religious leaders, and case workers as well as teachers. It is important to note, however, that the British study referenced above is the only one of its kind and consisted of "a random ... probability sample of 2,869 young people between the ages of 18 and 24 in a computer-assisted study" and that the questions referred to "sexual abuse with a professional," not necessarily a teacher. It is therefore logical to conclude that information on the percentage of abuses by teachers in the United Kingdom is not explicitly available and therefore not necessarily reliable. The AAUW study, however, posed questions about fourteen types of sexual harassment and various degrees of frequency and included only abuses by teachers. "The sample was drawn from a list of 80,000 schools to create a stratified two-stage sample design of 2,065 8th to 11th grade students"Its reliability was gauged at 95% with a 4% margin of error.
In the United States especially, several high-profile cases such as Debra LaFave, Pamela Rogers, and Mary Kay Latourneau have caused increased scrutiny on teacher misconduct.
Chris Keates, the general secretary of National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers, said that teachers who have sex with pupils over the age of consent should not be placed on the sex offenders register and that prosecution for statutory rape "is a real anomaly in the law that we are concerned about." This has led to outrage from child protection and parental rights groups.
teaching around the world
There are many similarities and differences among teachers around the world. In almost all countries teachers are educated in a university or college. Governments may require certification by a recognized body before they can teach in a school. In many countries, elementary school education certificate is earned after completion of high school. The high school student follows an education specialty track, obtain the prerequisite "student-teaching" time, and receive a special diploma to begin teaching after graduation.
International schools generally follow an English-speaking, Western curriculum and are aimed at expatriate communities.
a) Canada
Teaching in Canada requires a post-secondary degree Bachelor Degree where the last year would be a focus on Teaching. Salary ranges from $35,000/year to $85,000/yr. Teachers have the option to teach for a public school which is funded by the provincial government or teaching in a private school which is funded by the private sector, businesses and sponsors.
b) England and Wales
Nursery, Primary and Secondary School teachers ranged from £20,133 to £41,004 in September 2007, although some salaries can go much higher depending on experience. Preschool teachers may earn £20,980 annually. Teachers in state schools must have at least a bachelor's degree, complete an approved teacher education program, and be licensed.
Many counties offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. Excellent job opportunities are expected as retirements, especially among secondary school teachers, outweigh slowing enrollment growth; opportunities will vary by geographic area and subject taught.
c) France
In France, teachers, or professors, are mainly civil servants, recruited by competitive examination.
d) Republic of Ireland
Salaries for primary teachers in the Republic of Ireland depend mainly on seniority (i.e. holding the position of principal, deputy principal or assistant principal), experience and qualifications. Extra pay is also given for teaching through the Irish language, in a Gaeltacht area or on an island. The basic pay for a starting teacher is €31,028 p.a., rising incrementally to €57,403 for a teacher with 25 years' service. A principal of a large school with many years' experience and several qualifications (M.A., H.Dip., etc.) could earn over €90,000.
e) Scotland
In Scotland, anyone wishing to teach must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS). Teaching in Scotland is an all graduate profession and the normal route for graduates wishing to teach is to complete a programme of Initial Teacher Education (ITE) at one of the seven Scottish Universities who offer these courses. Once successfully completed, 'Provisional Registration' is given by the GTCS which is raised to 'Full Registration' status after a year if there is sufficient evidence to show that the 'Standard for Full Registration' has been met.
For salary year beginning April 2008, unpromoted teachers in Scotland earned from £20,427 for a Probationer, up to £32,583 after 6 years teaching, but could then go on to earn up to £39,942 as they complete the modules to earn Chartered Teacher Status (requiring at least 6 years at up to two modules per year.) Promotion to Principal Teacher positions attracts a salary of between £34,566 and £44,616; Deputy Head, and Head teachers earn from £40,290 to £78,642.
f) The United States
In the United States, each state determines the requirements for getting a license to teach in public schools. Public school teachers are required to have a bachelor's degree and the majority must be certified by the state in which they teach. Many charter schools do not require that their teachers be certified, provided they meet the standards to be highly qualified as set by No Child Left Behind. Additionally, the requirements for substitute/temporary teachers are generally not as rigorous as those for full-time professionals. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 1.4 million elementary school teachers, 674,000 middle school teachers, and 1 million secondary school teachers employed in the U.S.
In the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. US teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor’s degree and certificate. Salaries vary greatly depending on state, relative cost of living, and grade taught. Salaries also vary within states where wealthy suburban school districts generally have higher salary schedules than other districts. The median salary for all primary and secondary teachers was $46,000 in 2004, with the average entry salary for a teacher with a bachelor's degree being an estimated $32,000. Median salaries for preschool teachers, however, were less than half the national median for secondary teachers, clock in at an estimated $21,000 in 2004. For high school teachers, median salaries in 2007 ranged from $35,000 in South Dakota to $71,000 in New York, with a national median of $52,000. Some contracts may include long-term disability insurance, life insurance, emergency/personal leave and investment options.[26] The American Federation of Teachers' teacher salary survey for the 2004-05 school year found that the average teacher salary was $47,602. In a salary survey report for K-12 teachers, elementary school teachers had the lowest median salary earning $39,259. High school teachers had the highest median salary earning $41,855. Many teachers take advantage of the opportunity to increase their income by supervising after-school programs and other extracurricular activities. In addition to monetary compensation, public school teachers may also enjoy greater benefits (like health insurance) compared to other occupations. Also merit pay systems are on the rise for teachers, paying teachers extra money based on excellent classroom evaluations, high test scores and for high success at their overall school.
spiritual teacher
In Hinduism the spiritual teacher is known as a guru. In the Latter Day Saint movement the teacher is an office in the Aaronic priesthood, while in Tibetan Buddhism the teachers of Dharma in Tibet are most commonly called a Lama. A Lama who has through phowa and siddhi consciously determined to be reborn, often many times, in order to continue their Bodhisattva vow is called a Tulku.
There are many concepts of teachers in Islam, ranging from mullahs (the teachers at madrassas) to ulemas.
A Rabbi is generally regarded as the Jewish spiritual teacher.
Tuesday 24 November 2009
Friday 20 November 2009
jesus christ superstar
Jesus Christ Superstar is a 1973, Oscar-nominated film adaptation of the rock opera of the same name, based on the last weeks before the crucifixion of Jesus. The film was directed by Norman Jewison. Ted Neeley and Carl Anderson were nominated for two 1974 Golden Globe Award for their portrayals of Jesus and Judas, respectively.
Though it attracted negative criticism from some religious groups, the film was generally well received.
production history
During the filming of Fiddler on the Roof, Barry Dennen (who played Pilate on the concept album) suggested to Norman Jewison that he should direct Jesus Christ Superstar as a film. After hearing the album, Jewison agreed to do it. The film was shot in Israel (primarily at the ruins of Avdat) and other Middle Eastern locations in 1972. The cast consisted mostly of actors from the Broadway show, with Ted Neeley and Carl Anderson starring as Jesus and Judas. Neeley had played a reporter and a leper in the Broadway version, and understudied the role of Jesus. Along with Dennen, Yvonne Elliman (Mary Magdalene), and Bob Bingham (Caiaphas) reprised their Broadway roles in the film. Originally, Jewison had wanted Ian Gillan to reprise his role as Jesus, but Gillan turned down the offer, deciding that he would please fans more by touring with Deep Purple. Like the stage show, the film gave rise to controversy even with the changes to the script.
Some of the lyrics were changed for the film, partly enriching its content ("Hosanna", "The Temple") and partly making it more acceptable for a Christian audience. In a scene where a group of beggars overpowers Jesus, "Heal yourselves!", was changed to "Leave me alone!". In "Trial before Pilate", Jesus said "There may be a kingdom for me somewhere else, if you only knew", while the original line had been "if I only knew". And in "Judas' Death," the line "What you have done will be the saving of Israel" was changed to "... the saving of everyone."
Another important change was the insertion of a totally new song ("Then We Are Decided") in which the troubles and fears of Annas and Caiaphas regarding Jesus are better developed. These latter changes weren't espoused by later productions and recordings.
synopsys
The film begins with a group of actors arriving in a bus and preparing for the filming of Jesus Christ Superstar during the overture.
Ted Neeley (Jesus) is seen shortly before entering the circle wearing a green tie-dye shirt. He pauses to observe them taking the cross off of the bus. He is next seen walking with Yvonne Elimon (Mary Magdalene) who is carrying the white robe that Ted Neeley is about to put on. As the group encircles them, you see the green tie-dye shirt come off.
The show gets underway, and we see Judas sitting on a hill watching Jesus surrounded by followers. Judas is worried about Jesus' popularity — he is being hailed as a God, but Judas feels he is just a man, and fears the consequences of their growing movement ("Heaven On Their Minds"). Extras who were used for the adaptation included Mona Sandler and Lynne Klienman, both from Jamaica, NY, along with friends they met in Israel that summer. They were used for preview scenes to see how the lighting and terrain would work when the cast was ready to start filming. The shots were done at the Masada. The parts they played were lepers waiting for the touch from Jesus Christ and in the bazaar scenes.
The other disciples badger Jesus for information about his plans for the future, but Jesus will not give them any. Mary Magdalene tries to calm Jesus by dabbing cool water on his face. Jesus finds this very soothing ("What's The Buzz?"). Judas' arrival and subsequent declaration that Jesus that should not associate with Mary dampens the mood. Angrily Jesus tells Judas that he should leave Mary alone, because his slate is not clean. He then accuses all the apostles of not caring about him ("Strange Thing Mystifying").
In a new song added for the film, we are introduced to the High Priest, Caiaphas, and his religious second in command, Annas. Caiaphas is worried about Jesus' growing popularity as well — he fears that the people will crown him King, which will upset the Romans. At first, Annas tries to calm him, but he finally sees Caiaphas' point, and suggests that he convene the council and explain his fears to them. Caiaphas agrees ("Then We Are Decided").
Mary Magdalene rubs ointment on Jesus' face to calm him. The relaxing mood is again shattered by Judas, who says that the money spent on ointment should have been given to the poor. Jesus rebukes him again, telling him that the poor will be there always, but Jesus will not ("Everything's Alright").
The council of the Priests meet, and they all discuss their fears about Jesus. Caiaphas tells them that there is only one solution: like John the Baptist, Jesus must be executed for the sake of the nation ("This Jesus Must Die").
Jesus and his followers joyfully arrive in Jerusalem, but Caiaphas orders Jesus to disband the crowd for fear of a riot. Jesus refuses and speaks to the crowd ("Hosanna"). Later, the apostle Simon Zealotes, and a crowd of followers, voice their admiration for Jesus ("Simon Zealotes"). Jesus appreciates this, but becomes worried when Simon suggests directing the crowd towards an uprising against their Roman occupiers. Jesus sadly dismisses this suggestion, saying that they do not understand his true purpose ("Poor Jerusalem").
We are now introduced to Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. He reveals that he has dreamed about a Galilean man (Jesus) and that he will be blamed for this man's death ("Pilate's Dream"). The Gospel of Matthew 27:19 states that it was actually Pilate's wife who had this dream.
Jesus and his followers arrive at the temple, which has been taken over by money changers and prostitutes. Modern goods like machine guns, mirrors, and drug paraphernalia are seen being sold. A furious Jesus destroys the stalls and forces them to leave. A disconsolate Jesus goes for a walk, but is confronted by a crowd of lepers, all wanting to be healed. Jesus tries to heal as many of them as possible, but eventually gives up and screams at them to leave him alone ("The Temple"). Mary comforts Jesus and Jesus goes to sleep. Mary loves Jesus, but is worried because he is so unlike any other man she has met ("I Don't Know How To Love Him").
Judas goes to the Priests and expresses his concerns, but he is worried about the consequences of betraying Jesus ("Damned For All Time"). The Priests take advantage of his doubts, and offer him money if he will lead them to Jesus. Judas initially refuses, but Caiaphas wins him over, by reminding him that he could use the money to help the poor ("Blood Money"). Again the filmmakers use modern inventions for effect; Judas is chased first by tanks, and after he meets with the Priests, two jets fly low over Judas' head.
At the Last Supper, Jesus reveals that he knows Peter will deny him and Judas will betray him. A bitter argument between Jesus and Judas ensues, in which Judas asks what if he ruined Jesus' ambition and stayed there without helping him to reach the Glory. Judas leaves, but not before foreshadowing the opening lines of the title song, Superstar ("The Last Supper"). As the apostles fall asleep, Jesus goes to Gethsemane to pray about his imminent death ("Gethsemane (I Only Want To Say)").
Jesus waits for Judas, who arrives and betrays him with a kiss, accompanied by guards. The disciples offer to fight the guards, but Jesus will not allow it. Jesus is taken to the High Priest's House, found guilty of blasphemy, and sent to Pilate ("The Arrest").
Peter, meanwhile, denies Jesus three times, after being set on by a crowd of Jesus' enemies, ("Peter's Denial"). Jesus is taken to Pilate's house, where the governor, apparently unaware that Jesus is the man from his dream, mocks him. Since he does not deal with Jews Pilate sends him to Herod ("Pilate and Christ").
The flamboyant King Herod is excited to finally meet Jesus, for he has heard all the hype. He tries to persuade Jesus to perform various miracles for him. Herod and his companions are dressed in flamboyant modern clothing, with painted faces, gold teeth, and neon-colored wigs. When Jesus refuses to answer, Herod hurls abuse at Jesus, and orders the guards to remove him.("King Herod's Song").
The apostles and Mary Magdalene remember how things began, and wish they hadn't gotten so out of hand. ("Could We Start Again Please?"). Jesus is flung into a cell, where he is seen by Judas, who runs to tell the priests that he regrets his part in the arrest. He hurls his money to the ground, runs off and hangs himself ("Judas' Death").
Jesus is taken back to Pilate, who questions him as a smirking Herod looks on. Pilate realizes that, although he thinks Jesus is mad, he has committed no crime. The crowd yell for Jesus to be crucified. Pilate attempts to sway them by having Jesus flogged. Pilate's bemused indifference turns to a frenzy of confusion and anger, both at the crowd's irrational bloodthirstiness and Jesus' inexplicable resignation. Pilate realizes he has no option but to kill Jesus, or he will lose his job — and Jesus seems to want to die anyway ("Trial Before Pilate and 39 Lashes").
After Pilate washes his hands of Jesus' fate, the heavens open, and a white-jumpsuit clad Judas descends on a silver cross. This leads to the title song where Judas laments that if Jesus had returned as the Messiah today, he would have been more popular and his message easier to spread. Judas, accompanied by singing angels in white, disco-inspired clothing and wigs, also wonders what Jesus thinks of other religions' gods (Buddha and Mohammad are mentioned). He ultimately wants to know if Jesus thinks he is who they say he is ("Superstar").
Judas' questions go unanswered, and Jesus is sent to die ("The Crucifixion"), with ominous, atonal music, with Jesus saying some of his final words, such as "Father, forgive them, they don't know what they're doing", "My God, My God, why have you forgotten me?", and finally "Father, into your hands, I commend my spirit" before dying.
Under the final score ("John Nineteen:Forty-One"), the crew is seen striking the sets, as the cast reboards the bus from the beginning of the film. The actor who portrayed Jesus is noticeably absent, but the actor portraying Judas begins to board the bus, stops, looks back over the horizon, then sadly enters the bus. The bus and crew drive off; in the last scene of the sunset a silhouette of a shepherd can be seen walking across the screen. The shadow seen walking across the bottom was an Arab shepherd leading his flock who just happened to walk through the shot while the camera was filming. Jewison includes this shot because he thought it was a very eerie yet perfect addition to the film.
cast
* Ted Neeley as Jesus
* Carl Anderson as Judas Iscariot
* Yvonne Elliman as Mary Magdalene
* Barry Dennen as Pontius Pilate
* Bob Bingham as Caiaphas
* Larry Marshall as Simon Zealotes
* Josh Mostel as King Herod
* Kurt Yaghjian as Annas
* Philip Toubus as Peter
* Richard Orbach as John
* Robert LuPone as James
remakes
Another film version was made for television in 2000, starring Glenn Carter as Jesus and Jerome Pradon as Judas. It was shot entirely on indoor sets. Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber has stated in the making-of documentary that this was the version closest to what he had originally envisioned for the project. He chose Gale Edwards to direct after seeing her interpretation of the musical in Dublin, which featured a more modernistic and twisted approach than the original productions.
In a 2008 interview with Variety magazine, film producer Marc Platt stated that he was in discussions with several filmmakers for a remake of "Jesus Christ Superstar."
controversy
The film as well as the musical were criticized by some religious groups. Tim Rice said Jesus was seen through Judas' eyes as a mere human being. Some Christians found this remark, as well as the fact that the musical did not show the resurrection, to be blasphemous. Some found Judas too sympathetic (in the movie it states that he wants to give the thirty pieces of silver to the poor, which--although Biblical--leaves out his ulterior motives). Also, in the film Judas is played by an African-American actor rather than a Caucasian. Biblical purists pointed out a small number of deviations from biblical text as additional concerns; for example, Pilate himself having the dream instead of his wife.
soundtrack
The soundtrack for the film was released on vinyl by MCA Records in 1973. It was re-released on CD in 1993 and in 1998.
track listing
Side one
* "Overture" – 5:26
* "Heaven on Their Minds" – 4:22
* "What's the Buzz?"/"Strange Thing, Mystifying" – 4:26
* "Then We Are Decided" – 2:32
* "Everything's Alright" – 3:36
* "This Jesus Must Die" – 3:45
Side two
* "Hosanna" – 2:32
* "Simon Zealotes"/"Poor Jerusalem" – 6:28
* "Pilate's Dream" – 1:45
* "The Temple" – 5:26
* "I Don't Know How to Love Him" – 3:55
* "Damned for All Time"/"Blood Money" – 4:37
Side three
* "The Last Supper" – 7:12
* "Gethsemane (I Only Want to Say)" – 5:39
* "The Arrest" – 3:15
* "Peter's Denial" – 1:26
* "Pilate & Christ" – 2:57
* "King Herod's Song" – 3:13
Side four
* "Could We Start Again, Please?" – 2:44
* "Judas' Death" – 4:38
* "Trial Before Pilate" – 6:47
* "Superstar" – 3:56
* "Crucifixion" – 2:40
* "John Nineteen: Forty-One" – 2:20
Though it attracted negative criticism from some religious groups, the film was generally well received.
production history
During the filming of Fiddler on the Roof, Barry Dennen (who played Pilate on the concept album) suggested to Norman Jewison that he should direct Jesus Christ Superstar as a film. After hearing the album, Jewison agreed to do it. The film was shot in Israel (primarily at the ruins of Avdat) and other Middle Eastern locations in 1972. The cast consisted mostly of actors from the Broadway show, with Ted Neeley and Carl Anderson starring as Jesus and Judas. Neeley had played a reporter and a leper in the Broadway version, and understudied the role of Jesus. Along with Dennen, Yvonne Elliman (Mary Magdalene), and Bob Bingham (Caiaphas) reprised their Broadway roles in the film. Originally, Jewison had wanted Ian Gillan to reprise his role as Jesus, but Gillan turned down the offer, deciding that he would please fans more by touring with Deep Purple. Like the stage show, the film gave rise to controversy even with the changes to the script.
Some of the lyrics were changed for the film, partly enriching its content ("Hosanna", "The Temple") and partly making it more acceptable for a Christian audience. In a scene where a group of beggars overpowers Jesus, "Heal yourselves!", was changed to "Leave me alone!". In "Trial before Pilate", Jesus said "There may be a kingdom for me somewhere else, if you only knew", while the original line had been "if I only knew". And in "Judas' Death," the line "What you have done will be the saving of Israel" was changed to "... the saving of everyone."
Another important change was the insertion of a totally new song ("Then We Are Decided") in which the troubles and fears of Annas and Caiaphas regarding Jesus are better developed. These latter changes weren't espoused by later productions and recordings.
synopsys
The film begins with a group of actors arriving in a bus and preparing for the filming of Jesus Christ Superstar during the overture.
Ted Neeley (Jesus) is seen shortly before entering the circle wearing a green tie-dye shirt. He pauses to observe them taking the cross off of the bus. He is next seen walking with Yvonne Elimon (Mary Magdalene) who is carrying the white robe that Ted Neeley is about to put on. As the group encircles them, you see the green tie-dye shirt come off.
The show gets underway, and we see Judas sitting on a hill watching Jesus surrounded by followers. Judas is worried about Jesus' popularity — he is being hailed as a God, but Judas feels he is just a man, and fears the consequences of their growing movement ("Heaven On Their Minds"). Extras who were used for the adaptation included Mona Sandler and Lynne Klienman, both from Jamaica, NY, along with friends they met in Israel that summer. They were used for preview scenes to see how the lighting and terrain would work when the cast was ready to start filming. The shots were done at the Masada. The parts they played were lepers waiting for the touch from Jesus Christ and in the bazaar scenes.
The other disciples badger Jesus for information about his plans for the future, but Jesus will not give them any. Mary Magdalene tries to calm Jesus by dabbing cool water on his face. Jesus finds this very soothing ("What's The Buzz?"). Judas' arrival and subsequent declaration that Jesus that should not associate with Mary dampens the mood. Angrily Jesus tells Judas that he should leave Mary alone, because his slate is not clean. He then accuses all the apostles of not caring about him ("Strange Thing Mystifying").
In a new song added for the film, we are introduced to the High Priest, Caiaphas, and his religious second in command, Annas. Caiaphas is worried about Jesus' growing popularity as well — he fears that the people will crown him King, which will upset the Romans. At first, Annas tries to calm him, but he finally sees Caiaphas' point, and suggests that he convene the council and explain his fears to them. Caiaphas agrees ("Then We Are Decided").
Mary Magdalene rubs ointment on Jesus' face to calm him. The relaxing mood is again shattered by Judas, who says that the money spent on ointment should have been given to the poor. Jesus rebukes him again, telling him that the poor will be there always, but Jesus will not ("Everything's Alright").
The council of the Priests meet, and they all discuss their fears about Jesus. Caiaphas tells them that there is only one solution: like John the Baptist, Jesus must be executed for the sake of the nation ("This Jesus Must Die").
Jesus and his followers joyfully arrive in Jerusalem, but Caiaphas orders Jesus to disband the crowd for fear of a riot. Jesus refuses and speaks to the crowd ("Hosanna"). Later, the apostle Simon Zealotes, and a crowd of followers, voice their admiration for Jesus ("Simon Zealotes"). Jesus appreciates this, but becomes worried when Simon suggests directing the crowd towards an uprising against their Roman occupiers. Jesus sadly dismisses this suggestion, saying that they do not understand his true purpose ("Poor Jerusalem").
We are now introduced to Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. He reveals that he has dreamed about a Galilean man (Jesus) and that he will be blamed for this man's death ("Pilate's Dream"). The Gospel of Matthew 27:19 states that it was actually Pilate's wife who had this dream.
Jesus and his followers arrive at the temple, which has been taken over by money changers and prostitutes. Modern goods like machine guns, mirrors, and drug paraphernalia are seen being sold. A furious Jesus destroys the stalls and forces them to leave. A disconsolate Jesus goes for a walk, but is confronted by a crowd of lepers, all wanting to be healed. Jesus tries to heal as many of them as possible, but eventually gives up and screams at them to leave him alone ("The Temple"). Mary comforts Jesus and Jesus goes to sleep. Mary loves Jesus, but is worried because he is so unlike any other man she has met ("I Don't Know How To Love Him").
Judas goes to the Priests and expresses his concerns, but he is worried about the consequences of betraying Jesus ("Damned For All Time"). The Priests take advantage of his doubts, and offer him money if he will lead them to Jesus. Judas initially refuses, but Caiaphas wins him over, by reminding him that he could use the money to help the poor ("Blood Money"). Again the filmmakers use modern inventions for effect; Judas is chased first by tanks, and after he meets with the Priests, two jets fly low over Judas' head.
At the Last Supper, Jesus reveals that he knows Peter will deny him and Judas will betray him. A bitter argument between Jesus and Judas ensues, in which Judas asks what if he ruined Jesus' ambition and stayed there without helping him to reach the Glory. Judas leaves, but not before foreshadowing the opening lines of the title song, Superstar ("The Last Supper"). As the apostles fall asleep, Jesus goes to Gethsemane to pray about his imminent death ("Gethsemane (I Only Want To Say)").
Jesus waits for Judas, who arrives and betrays him with a kiss, accompanied by guards. The disciples offer to fight the guards, but Jesus will not allow it. Jesus is taken to the High Priest's House, found guilty of blasphemy, and sent to Pilate ("The Arrest").
Peter, meanwhile, denies Jesus three times, after being set on by a crowd of Jesus' enemies, ("Peter's Denial"). Jesus is taken to Pilate's house, where the governor, apparently unaware that Jesus is the man from his dream, mocks him. Since he does not deal with Jews Pilate sends him to Herod ("Pilate and Christ").
The flamboyant King Herod is excited to finally meet Jesus, for he has heard all the hype. He tries to persuade Jesus to perform various miracles for him. Herod and his companions are dressed in flamboyant modern clothing, with painted faces, gold teeth, and neon-colored wigs. When Jesus refuses to answer, Herod hurls abuse at Jesus, and orders the guards to remove him.("King Herod's Song").
The apostles and Mary Magdalene remember how things began, and wish they hadn't gotten so out of hand. ("Could We Start Again Please?"). Jesus is flung into a cell, where he is seen by Judas, who runs to tell the priests that he regrets his part in the arrest. He hurls his money to the ground, runs off and hangs himself ("Judas' Death").
Jesus is taken back to Pilate, who questions him as a smirking Herod looks on. Pilate realizes that, although he thinks Jesus is mad, he has committed no crime. The crowd yell for Jesus to be crucified. Pilate attempts to sway them by having Jesus flogged. Pilate's bemused indifference turns to a frenzy of confusion and anger, both at the crowd's irrational bloodthirstiness and Jesus' inexplicable resignation. Pilate realizes he has no option but to kill Jesus, or he will lose his job — and Jesus seems to want to die anyway ("Trial Before Pilate and 39 Lashes").
After Pilate washes his hands of Jesus' fate, the heavens open, and a white-jumpsuit clad Judas descends on a silver cross. This leads to the title song where Judas laments that if Jesus had returned as the Messiah today, he would have been more popular and his message easier to spread. Judas, accompanied by singing angels in white, disco-inspired clothing and wigs, also wonders what Jesus thinks of other religions' gods (Buddha and Mohammad are mentioned). He ultimately wants to know if Jesus thinks he is who they say he is ("Superstar").
Judas' questions go unanswered, and Jesus is sent to die ("The Crucifixion"), with ominous, atonal music, with Jesus saying some of his final words, such as "Father, forgive them, they don't know what they're doing", "My God, My God, why have you forgotten me?", and finally "Father, into your hands, I commend my spirit" before dying.
Under the final score ("John Nineteen:Forty-One"), the crew is seen striking the sets, as the cast reboards the bus from the beginning of the film. The actor who portrayed Jesus is noticeably absent, but the actor portraying Judas begins to board the bus, stops, looks back over the horizon, then sadly enters the bus. The bus and crew drive off; in the last scene of the sunset a silhouette of a shepherd can be seen walking across the screen. The shadow seen walking across the bottom was an Arab shepherd leading his flock who just happened to walk through the shot while the camera was filming. Jewison includes this shot because he thought it was a very eerie yet perfect addition to the film.
cast
* Ted Neeley as Jesus
* Carl Anderson as Judas Iscariot
* Yvonne Elliman as Mary Magdalene
* Barry Dennen as Pontius Pilate
* Bob Bingham as Caiaphas
* Larry Marshall as Simon Zealotes
* Josh Mostel as King Herod
* Kurt Yaghjian as Annas
* Philip Toubus as Peter
* Richard Orbach as John
* Robert LuPone as James
remakes
Another film version was made for television in 2000, starring Glenn Carter as Jesus and Jerome Pradon as Judas. It was shot entirely on indoor sets. Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber has stated in the making-of documentary that this was the version closest to what he had originally envisioned for the project. He chose Gale Edwards to direct after seeing her interpretation of the musical in Dublin, which featured a more modernistic and twisted approach than the original productions.
In a 2008 interview with Variety magazine, film producer Marc Platt stated that he was in discussions with several filmmakers for a remake of "Jesus Christ Superstar."
controversy
The film as well as the musical were criticized by some religious groups. Tim Rice said Jesus was seen through Judas' eyes as a mere human being. Some Christians found this remark, as well as the fact that the musical did not show the resurrection, to be blasphemous. Some found Judas too sympathetic (in the movie it states that he wants to give the thirty pieces of silver to the poor, which--although Biblical--leaves out his ulterior motives). Also, in the film Judas is played by an African-American actor rather than a Caucasian. Biblical purists pointed out a small number of deviations from biblical text as additional concerns; for example, Pilate himself having the dream instead of his wife.
soundtrack
The soundtrack for the film was released on vinyl by MCA Records in 1973. It was re-released on CD in 1993 and in 1998.
track listing
Side one
* "Overture" – 5:26
* "Heaven on Their Minds" – 4:22
* "What's the Buzz?"/"Strange Thing, Mystifying" – 4:26
* "Then We Are Decided" – 2:32
* "Everything's Alright" – 3:36
* "This Jesus Must Die" – 3:45
Side two
* "Hosanna" – 2:32
* "Simon Zealotes"/"Poor Jerusalem" – 6:28
* "Pilate's Dream" – 1:45
* "The Temple" – 5:26
* "I Don't Know How to Love Him" – 3:55
* "Damned for All Time"/"Blood Money" – 4:37
Side three
* "The Last Supper" – 7:12
* "Gethsemane (I Only Want to Say)" – 5:39
* "The Arrest" – 3:15
* "Peter's Denial" – 1:26
* "Pilate & Christ" – 2:57
* "King Herod's Song" – 3:13
Side four
* "Could We Start Again, Please?" – 2:44
* "Judas' Death" – 4:38
* "Trial Before Pilate" – 6:47
* "Superstar" – 3:56
* "Crucifixion" – 2:40
* "John Nineteen: Forty-One" – 2:20
fear
Fear is an emotional response to a threat. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger. Some psychologists such as John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that fear is one of a small set of basic or innate emotions. This set also includes such emotions as joy, sadness, and anger. Fear should be distinguished from the related emotional state of anxiety, which typically occurs without any external threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats which are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.[ Worth noting is that fear always relates to future events, such as worsening of a situation, or continuation of a situation that is unacceptable. Fear could also be an instant reaction, to something presently happening.
etymology
The Old English term fear meant not the emotion engendered by a calamity or disaster, but rather the event itself. The first recorded usage of the term "fear" with the sense of the “emotion of fear” is found in a medieval work written in Middle English, composed circa 1290. The most probable explanation for the change in the meaning of the word "fear" is the existence in Old English of the related verb frighten, which meant “to terrify, take by surprise”.
description
A vivid description of fear was provided by Charles Darwin in his book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals:
“ Fear is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if instinctively to escape observation. The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks against the ribs... That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear, we see in the marvellous manner in which perspiration immediately exudes from it... The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry, and is often opened and shut.”
The facial expression of fear includes the widening of the eyes (out of anticipation for what will happen next); the pupils dilate (to take in more light); the upper lip rises, the brows draw together, and the lips stretch horizontally. The physiological effects of fear can be better understood from the perspective of the sympathetic nervous responses (fight-or-flight), as compared to the parasympathetic response, which is a more relaxed state. Muscles used for physical movement are tightened and primed with oxygen, in preparation for a physical fight-or-flight response. Perspiration occurs due to blood being shunted from body's viscera to the peripheral parts of the body. Blood that is shunted from the viscera to the rest of the body will transfer, along with oxygen and nutrients, heat, prompting perspiration to cool the body. When the stimulus is shocking or abrupt, a common reaction is to cover (or otherwise protect) vulnerable parts of the anatomy, particularly the face and head. When a fear stimulus occurs unexpectedly, the victim of the fear response could possibly jump or give a small start. The person's heart-rate and heartbeat may quicken.
varieties
Fear can be described with different terms in relation to the degree of fear that is experienced. It varies from mild caution to extreme phobia and paranoia. Fear is related to a number of additional cognitive and emotional states including worry, anxiety, terror, horror, panic, and dread. Experiences of fear are, by their very nature, impacting and, in this way, can remain in the unconscious mind long after exposure; where they may then manifest as nightmares. Fear may also be experienced within a larger group or social network. In this way, personal fears are compounded by social influence to become mass hysteria.
The experience of distrust can be explained as a feeling of mild fear or caution, usually in response to an unfamiliar or potentially dangerous person. Distrust may occur as a feeling of warning towards someone or something that is questionable or unknown. For example, one may distrust a stranger who acts in a way that is perceived as odd or unusual. Likewise, one may distrust the safety of a rusty old bridge across a 100-foot drop. Distrust may serve as an adaptive, early warning signal for situations that could lead to greater fear and danger.
Terror is an acute and pronounced form of fear. It is an overwhelming sense of immediate personal danger. It can also be caused by perceiving the object of a phobia. Terror may overwhelm a person to the point of making irrational choices and atypical behavior. Paranoia is a term used to describe a psychosis of fear. It is experienced as longstanding feelings and perceptions of being persecuted. Paranoia is an extreme emotional state combined with cognitions, or more specifically, delusions that one is in danger. This degree of fear may indicate that one has changed his or her normal behavior in extreme or maladaptive ways.
common fears
According to surveys, some of the most commonly feared objects are spiders, snakes, heights, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels and bridges, social rejection, failure, and public speaking. In an innovative test of what people fear the most, Bill Tancer analyzed the most frequent online search queries that involved the phrase, "fear of...". This follows the assumption that people tend to seek information on the issues that concern them the most. His top ten list of fears consisted of flying, heights, clowns, intimacy, death, rejection, people, snakes, success, and driving.
Another common fear can be of pain, or of someone damaging a person. Many people, actually most people, that are normal and or are not masochistic, will be afraid of pain. Fear of pain in a plausible situation brings flinching, or cringing. Some people turn this into a game, where one throws a punch at the other, then hits them if they flinch. This is not a great idea, as flinching is a bodily reaction to danger and is a very sensitive feature, and must be treated as such.
In a 2005 Gallup poll (U.S.A.), a national sample of adolescents between the ages of 13 and 15 were asked what they feared the most. The question was open ended and participants were able to say whatever they wanted. The most frequently cited fear (mentioned by 8% of the teens) was terrorism. The top ten fears were, in order: terrorist attacks, spiders, death, being a failure, war, heights, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, and nuclear war.
causes
People develop specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects. In the real world, fear can be acquired by a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions,not just simply from personal history.
Although fear is learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection.
The experience of fear is affected by historical and cultural influences. For example, in the early 20th Century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that cripples the body part it affects, leaving that body part immobilized for the rest of one's life. There are also consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions.
neurobiology
The amygdala is a key brain structure in the neurobiology of fear. It is involved in the processing of negative emotions (such as fear and anger). Researchers have observed hyperactivity in the amygdala when patients who were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with a more severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala. Studies have also shown that subjects exposed to images of frightened faces, or faces of people from another race, exhibit increased activity in the amygdala.
The fear response generated by the amygdala can be mitigated by another brain region known as the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, located in the frontal lobe. In a 2006 study at Columbia University, researchers observed that test subjects experienced less activity in the amygdala when they consciously perceived fearful stimuli than when they unconsciously perceived fearful stimuli. In the former case, they discovered the rostral anterior cingulate cortex activates to dampen activity in amygdala, granting the subjects a degree of emotional control.
The role of the amygdala in the processing of fear-related stimuli has been questioned by research upon those in which it is bilateral damaged. Even in the absence of their amygdala, they still react rapidly to fearful faces.
Suppression of amygdala activity can also be achieved by pathogens. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats.
fear and death
Psychologists have addressed the hypothesis that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that it may be alleviated by assurances about an afterlife. Empirical research on this topic has been equivocal. According to Kahoe and Dunn, people who are most firm in their faith and attend religious services weekly are the least afraid of dying. People who hold a loose religious faith are the most anxious, and people who are not religious are intermediate in their fear of death. A survey of people in various Christian denominations showed a positive correlation between fear of death and dogmatic adherence to religious doctrine. In other words, Christian fundamentalism and other strict interpretations of the Bible are associated with greater fear of death. Furthermore, some religious orientations were more effective than others in allaying that fear.
In another study, data from a sample of white, Christian men and women were used to test the hypothesis that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are distinct ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.
Fear of death is also known as death anxiety. This may be a more accurate label because, like other anxieties, the emotional state in question is long lasting and not typically linked to a specific stimulus. The analysis of fear of death, death anxiety, and concerns over mortality is an important feature of existentialism and terror management theory.
Another common theory that is sometimes recognized is that people fear death because they do not know what happens afterwards.Though some people have a religion or a preconceived cognation of what will happen after death. They fear death because they cling to life and enjoy too much to let it go.
etymology
The Old English term fear meant not the emotion engendered by a calamity or disaster, but rather the event itself. The first recorded usage of the term "fear" with the sense of the “emotion of fear” is found in a medieval work written in Middle English, composed circa 1290. The most probable explanation for the change in the meaning of the word "fear" is the existence in Old English of the related verb frighten, which meant “to terrify, take by surprise”.
description
A vivid description of fear was provided by Charles Darwin in his book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals:
“ Fear is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if instinctively to escape observation. The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks against the ribs... That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear, we see in the marvellous manner in which perspiration immediately exudes from it... The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry, and is often opened and shut.”
The facial expression of fear includes the widening of the eyes (out of anticipation for what will happen next); the pupils dilate (to take in more light); the upper lip rises, the brows draw together, and the lips stretch horizontally. The physiological effects of fear can be better understood from the perspective of the sympathetic nervous responses (fight-or-flight), as compared to the parasympathetic response, which is a more relaxed state. Muscles used for physical movement are tightened and primed with oxygen, in preparation for a physical fight-or-flight response. Perspiration occurs due to blood being shunted from body's viscera to the peripheral parts of the body. Blood that is shunted from the viscera to the rest of the body will transfer, along with oxygen and nutrients, heat, prompting perspiration to cool the body. When the stimulus is shocking or abrupt, a common reaction is to cover (or otherwise protect) vulnerable parts of the anatomy, particularly the face and head. When a fear stimulus occurs unexpectedly, the victim of the fear response could possibly jump or give a small start. The person's heart-rate and heartbeat may quicken.
varieties
Fear can be described with different terms in relation to the degree of fear that is experienced. It varies from mild caution to extreme phobia and paranoia. Fear is related to a number of additional cognitive and emotional states including worry, anxiety, terror, horror, panic, and dread. Experiences of fear are, by their very nature, impacting and, in this way, can remain in the unconscious mind long after exposure; where they may then manifest as nightmares. Fear may also be experienced within a larger group or social network. In this way, personal fears are compounded by social influence to become mass hysteria.
The experience of distrust can be explained as a feeling of mild fear or caution, usually in response to an unfamiliar or potentially dangerous person. Distrust may occur as a feeling of warning towards someone or something that is questionable or unknown. For example, one may distrust a stranger who acts in a way that is perceived as odd or unusual. Likewise, one may distrust the safety of a rusty old bridge across a 100-foot drop. Distrust may serve as an adaptive, early warning signal for situations that could lead to greater fear and danger.
Terror is an acute and pronounced form of fear. It is an overwhelming sense of immediate personal danger. It can also be caused by perceiving the object of a phobia. Terror may overwhelm a person to the point of making irrational choices and atypical behavior. Paranoia is a term used to describe a psychosis of fear. It is experienced as longstanding feelings and perceptions of being persecuted. Paranoia is an extreme emotional state combined with cognitions, or more specifically, delusions that one is in danger. This degree of fear may indicate that one has changed his or her normal behavior in extreme or maladaptive ways.
common fears
According to surveys, some of the most commonly feared objects are spiders, snakes, heights, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels and bridges, social rejection, failure, and public speaking. In an innovative test of what people fear the most, Bill Tancer analyzed the most frequent online search queries that involved the phrase, "fear of...". This follows the assumption that people tend to seek information on the issues that concern them the most. His top ten list of fears consisted of flying, heights, clowns, intimacy, death, rejection, people, snakes, success, and driving.
Another common fear can be of pain, or of someone damaging a person. Many people, actually most people, that are normal and or are not masochistic, will be afraid of pain. Fear of pain in a plausible situation brings flinching, or cringing. Some people turn this into a game, where one throws a punch at the other, then hits them if they flinch. This is not a great idea, as flinching is a bodily reaction to danger and is a very sensitive feature, and must be treated as such.
In a 2005 Gallup poll (U.S.A.), a national sample of adolescents between the ages of 13 and 15 were asked what they feared the most. The question was open ended and participants were able to say whatever they wanted. The most frequently cited fear (mentioned by 8% of the teens) was terrorism. The top ten fears were, in order: terrorist attacks, spiders, death, being a failure, war, heights, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, and nuclear war.
causes
People develop specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects. In the real world, fear can be acquired by a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions,not just simply from personal history.
Although fear is learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection.
The experience of fear is affected by historical and cultural influences. For example, in the early 20th Century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that cripples the body part it affects, leaving that body part immobilized for the rest of one's life. There are also consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions.
neurobiology
The amygdala is a key brain structure in the neurobiology of fear. It is involved in the processing of negative emotions (such as fear and anger). Researchers have observed hyperactivity in the amygdala when patients who were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with a more severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala. Studies have also shown that subjects exposed to images of frightened faces, or faces of people from another race, exhibit increased activity in the amygdala.
The fear response generated by the amygdala can be mitigated by another brain region known as the rostral anterior cingulate cortex, located in the frontal lobe. In a 2006 study at Columbia University, researchers observed that test subjects experienced less activity in the amygdala when they consciously perceived fearful stimuli than when they unconsciously perceived fearful stimuli. In the former case, they discovered the rostral anterior cingulate cortex activates to dampen activity in amygdala, granting the subjects a degree of emotional control.
The role of the amygdala in the processing of fear-related stimuli has been questioned by research upon those in which it is bilateral damaged. Even in the absence of their amygdala, they still react rapidly to fearful faces.
Suppression of amygdala activity can also be achieved by pathogens. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats.
fear and death
Psychologists have addressed the hypothesis that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that it may be alleviated by assurances about an afterlife. Empirical research on this topic has been equivocal. According to Kahoe and Dunn, people who are most firm in their faith and attend religious services weekly are the least afraid of dying. People who hold a loose religious faith are the most anxious, and people who are not religious are intermediate in their fear of death. A survey of people in various Christian denominations showed a positive correlation between fear of death and dogmatic adherence to religious doctrine. In other words, Christian fundamentalism and other strict interpretations of the Bible are associated with greater fear of death. Furthermore, some religious orientations were more effective than others in allaying that fear.
In another study, data from a sample of white, Christian men and women were used to test the hypothesis that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are distinct ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.
Fear of death is also known as death anxiety. This may be a more accurate label because, like other anxieties, the emotional state in question is long lasting and not typically linked to a specific stimulus. The analysis of fear of death, death anxiety, and concerns over mortality is an important feature of existentialism and terror management theory.
Another common theory that is sometimes recognized is that people fear death because they do not know what happens afterwards.Though some people have a religion or a preconceived cognation of what will happen after death. They fear death because they cling to life and enjoy too much to let it go.
Wednesday 11 November 2009
jiddhu krishnamurti
Jiddu Krishnamurti (Telugu: à°œిà°¡్à°¡ు à°•ృà°·్à°£ à°®ూà°°్à°¤ి) or J. Krishnamurti (Telugu: à°œే . à°•ృà°·్à°£ à°®ూà°°్à°¤ి) or (Tamil: கிà®°ுà®·்ணமூà®°்த்தி) , (May 12, 1895–February 17, 1986) was a renowned writer and speaker on philosophical and spiritual subjects. His subject matter included: psychological revolution, the nature of the mind, meditation, human relationships, and bringing about positive change in society. He constantly stressed the need for a revolution in the psyche of every human being and emphasized that such revolution cannot be brought about by any external entity, be it religious, political, or social.
Krishnamurti was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in what was then colonial India. In early adolescence, he had a chance encounter with prominent occultist and high-ranking theosophist C.W. Leadbeater in the grounds of the Theosophical Society headquarters at Adyar in Madras (now Chennai). He was subsequently raised under the tutelage of Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater, leaders of the Society at the time, who believed him to be a "vehicle" for an expected World Teacher. As a young man, he disavowed this idea and dissolved the worldwide organization (the Order of the Star) established to support it. He claimed allegiance to no nationality, caste, religion, or philosophy, and spent the rest of his life traveling the world as an individual speaker, speaking to large and small groups, as well as with interested individuals. He authored a number of books, among them The First and Last Freedom, The Only Revolution, and Krishnamurti's Notebook. In addition, a large collection of his talks and discussions have been published. His last public talk was in Madras, India, in January 1986, a month before his death at his home in Ojai, California.
His supporters, working through several non-profit foundations, oversee a number of independent schools centered on his views on education – in India, Great Britain and the United States – and continue to transcribe and distribute many of his thousands of talks, group and individual discussions, and other writings, publishing them in a variety of formats including print, audio, video and digital formats as well as online, in many languages.
biography
a) Family Background and Childhood
Jiddu Krishnamurti came from a family of Telugu-speaking Brahmins. His father, Jiddu Narainiah , was employed as an official of the then colonial British administration. Krishnamurti was very fond of his mother, Sanjeevamma, who died when he was ten. His parents were second cousins, having a total of eleven children, only six of whom survived childhood. They were strict vegetarians, even shunning eggs, and throwing away any food that the "shadow of an Englishman had crossed".
He was born on May 12, 1895 in the small town of Madanapalle in Chittoor District in Andhra Pradesh. As the eighth child, who happened to be a boy, he was, in accordance with common Hindu practice, named after Sri Krishna.
In 1903, the family settled in Cudappah, where Krishnamurti during a previous stay had contracted malaria, a disease with which he would suffer recurrent bouts over many years. He was a sensitive and sickly child; "vague and dreamy", he was often taken to be mentally retarded, and was beaten regularly at school by his teachers and at home by his father. Several decades later, Krishnamurti reminisced about his state of mind during childhood: "No thought entered his mind. He was watching and listening and nothing else. Thought with its associations never arose. There was no image-making. He often attempted to think but no thought would come." Writing about his childhood and early adolescence in memoirs he composed when he was eighteen years old, Krishnamurti described psychic experiences, such as "seeing" his sister, who had died in 1904, and also his mother, who had died in 1905. Another aspect of his childhood was his bond with nature that continued throughout his life: "...He always had this strange lack of distance between himself and the trees, rivers and mountains. It wasn't cultivated."
Krishnamurti's father Narainiah retired at the end of 1907, and, being of limited means, wrote to Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, seeking employment at the Theosophical headquarters estate at Adyar. Although he was an observant orthodox Brahmin, Narainiah had been a member of the Theosophical Society since 1882. He was eventually hired by the Society as a clerk, and he moved his family there in January, 1909. Narainiah and his sons were at first assigned to live in a small cottage that lacked adequate sanitation and which was located just outside the Theosophical compound. As a result of poor living conditions, Krishnamurti and his brothers were soon undernourished and infested with lice.
b) The "Discovery" and its Consequences
It was in April 1909, a few months after the last move, that Krishnamurti first met C.W. Leadbeater, who claimed clairvoyance. During his forays to the Theosophical estate's beach at the nearby Adyar river, Leadbeater had noticed Krishnamurti (who also frequented the beach with others), and was amazed by the "most wonderful aura he had ever seen, without a particle of selfishness in it". This strong impression was notwithstanding Krishnamurti's outward appearance, which, according to eyewitnesses, was pretty common, unimpressive, and unkempt. The boy was also considered "particularly dim-witted"; he often had "a vacant expression" that "gave him an almost moronic look". Leadbeater remained "unshaken" that the boy would become "a great teacher".
Pupul Jayakar, in her biography of Krishnamurti, quotes him speaking of that period in his life some 75 years later: "The boy had always said, 'I will do whatever you want'. There was an element of subservience, obedience. The boy was vague, uncertain, woolly; he didn't seem to care what was happening. He was like a vessel, with a large hole in it, whatever was put in, went through, nothing remained."
Following his "discovery", Krishnamurti was taken under the wing of the leadership of the Theosophical Society in Adyar and their inner circle. Leadbeater and a small number of trusted associates undertook the task of educating, protecting, and generally preparing Krishnamurti as the "vehicle" of the expected World Teacher. Krishnamurti (or Krishnaji as he was often called) and his younger brother Nitya were privately tutored at the Theosophical compound in Madras, and later exposed to a comparatively opulent life among a segment of European high society, as they continued their education abroad. In spite of his history of problems with school work and concerns about his capacities and physical condition, the fourteen-year-old Krishnamurti within six months was able to speak and write competently in English.
During this time, Krishnamurti had developed a strong bond with Annie Besant, and came to view her as a surrogate mother. Apart from his early close relationship with his mother, this was the first of several important and intimate relationships that Krishnamurti established with women during his lifetime. His father, pushed into the background by the swirl of interest around Krishnamurti, sued the Theosophical Society in 1912 to protect his parental interests. After a protracted legal battle, Besant took custody of Krishnamurti and his brother Nitya. As a result of this separation from his family and home, Krishnamurti and his brother became extremely close, and in the following years they often traveled together.
The Theosophical Leadership in 1911 established a new organization called the Order of the Star in the East, to prepare the world for the aforementioned "coming". Krishnamurti was named as its head, with senior Theosophists in various positions. Membership was open to anybody who accepted the doctrine of the coming of the World Teacher. Controversy erupted soon after, both within the Theosophical Society and without, in Hindu circles and the Indian press.
c) Growing Up
Mary Lutyens, in her biography of Krishnamurti, states that there was a time when he fully believed that he was to become the World Teacher after correct spiritual and secular guidance and education. Another biographer describes the daily program imposed on him by Leadbeater and his associates, which among other things included rigorous exercise and sports, tutoring in a variety of school subjects, theosophical and religious lessons, yoga and meditation, as well as instruction in proper hygiene and the ways of British society and culture. Unlike sports, where he showed natural aptitude, Krishnamurti always had problems with formal schooling and was not academically inclined. He eventually gave up university education after several attempts at admission. He did take to foreign languages, eventually speaking several (French and Italian among them) with some fluency. In this period, he apparently enjoyed reading parts of the Old Testament, and was impressed by some of the Western classics, especially Shelley, Dostoyevsky and Nietzsche. He also had, since childhood, considerable observational and mechanical skills, being able to correctly disassemble and reassemble complicated machinery.
His public image, as originally cultivated by the theosophists, "...was to be characterized by a well-polished exterior, a sobriety of purpose, a cosmopolitan outlook and an otherworldly, almost beatific detachment in his demeanor." And in fact, "...All of these can be said to have characterised Krishnamurti's public image to the end of his life." It was apparently clear early on that he "...possessed an innate personal magnetism, not of a warm physical variety, but nonetheless emotive in its austerity, and inclined to inspire veneration." However, as Krishnamurti was growing up, he showed signs of adolescent rebellion and emotional instability, chafing at the regimen imposed on him, and occasionally having doubts about the future prescribed him.
Krishnamurti and Nitya were taken to England for the first time in April 1911. Between that time and the start of World War I in 1914, they also visited several other European countries, always accompanied by theosophist chaperones. After the war, Krishnamurti (again accompanied by his brother) embarked on a series of lectures, meetings, and discussions around the world relating to his duties as the head of the Order Of The Star. In 1922, Krishnamurti and Nitya travelled from Sydney to California on their way to Switzerland. While in California, they lodged at a cottage in then relatively secluded Ojai Valley, offered to them for the occasion by an American member of the Order.[36] At Ojai, the brothers also met Rosalind Williams, the sister of a local Theosophist, who eventually became close to them both. For the first time the brothers were without immediate supervision by their Theosophical Society minders; they spent their time in nature hikes and picnics with friends, spiritual contemplation, and planning their course within the "World Teacher Project". Krishnamurti and Nitya found the Ojai Valley to be very agreeable, and eventually a trust, formed by supporters, purchased for them the cottage and surrounding property, which henceforth became Krishnamurti's official place of residence.
It was in Ojai, in August 1922, that Krishnamurti went through an intense, "life-changing" experience. It has been simultaneously, and invariably, characterised as a spiritual awakening, a psychological transformation, and a physical conditioning. Krishnamurti and those around him would refer to it as "the process", and it continued, at very frequent intervals and varying forms of intensity, until his death. According to witnesses, it started on the 17th, with Krishnamurti complaining of extraordinary pain at the nape of his neck, and a hard, ball-like swelling. Over the next couple of days, the symptoms worsened, with increasing pain, extreme physical discomfort and sensitivity, total loss of appetite and occasional delirious ramblings. Then, he seemed to lapse into unconsciousness; actually, he recounted that he was very much aware of his surroundings and while in that state, he had an experience of mystical union. The following day the symptoms, and the experience, intensified, climaxing with a sense of "immense peace".
"...I was supremely happy, for I had seen. Nothing could ever be the same. I have drunk at the clear and pure waters and my thirst was appeased. ...I have seen the Light. I have touched compassion which heals all sorrow and suffering; it is not for myself, but for the world. ...Love in all its glory has intoxicated my heart; my heart can never be closed. I have drunk at the fountain of Joy and eternal Beauty. I am God-intoxicated."
Similar incidents continued with short intermissions until October, and later eventually resumed regularly, always involving varying degrees of physical pain to mark the start of "the process", accompanied by what is variably described as "presence", "benediction", "immensity", and "sacredness", which was reportedly often felt by others present.
Several explanations have been proposed for the events of 1922, and "the process" in general. Leadbeater and other theosophists, although they expected the "vehicle" to have certain paranormal experiences, were mystified by the developments and were at a loss to explain the whole thing. During Krishnamurti's later years, the continuing "process" often came up as a subject in private discussions between himself and his closest associates; although these discussions shed some light on the subject, they were ultimately inconclusive regarding its nature and provenance.
The "process", and the inability of Leadbeater to explain it satisfactorily, if at all, had other consequences according to biographer R. Vernon:
"The process at Ojai, whatever its cause or validity, was a cataclysmic milestone for Krishna. Up until this time his spiritual progress, chequered though it might have been, had been planned with solemn deliberation by Theosophy's grandees. ...Something new had now occurred for which Krishna's training had not entirely prepared him. ...A burden was lifted from his conscience and he took his first step towards becoming an individual. ...In terms of his future role as a teacher, the process was his bedrock. ...It had come to him alone and had not been planted in him by his mentors...It provided Krishna with the soil in which his newfound spirit of confidence and independence could take root."
Finally, the unexpected death of his brother Nitya on November 11, 1925 at age 27 from tuberculosis after a long history with the disease, fundamentally shook Krishnamurti's belief in Theosophy and his faith in the leaders of the Theosophical Society. According to eyewitness accounts, the news "...broke him down completely". He struggled for days to overcome his sorrow, eventually "...going through an inner revolution, finding new strength". The experience of his brother's death apparently shattered any remaining illusions, and things would never be the same again:
"...An old dream is dead and a new one is being born, as a flower that pushes through the solid earth. A new vision is coming into being and a greater consciousness is being unfolded. ...A new strength, born of suffering, is pulsating in the veins and a new sympathy and understanding is being born of past suffering - a greater desire to see others suffer less, and, if they must suffer, to see that they bear it nobly and come out of it without too many scars. I have wept, but I do not want others to weep; but if they do, I know what it means."
d) Break with the Past
In the next few years Krishnamurti's new vision and consciousness continued to develop and reached a climax in 1929, when he rebuffed attempts by Leadbeater and Besant to continue with the Order of the Star. Krishnamurti dissolved the Order at the annual Star Camp at Ommen, the Netherlands, on August 3, 1929. where, in front of Annie Besant and several thousand members, he gave a speech saying among other things:
"You may remember the story of how the devil and a friend of his were walking down the street, when they saw ahead of them a man stoop down and pick up something from the ground, look at it, and put it away in his pocket. The friend said to the devil, 'What did that man pick up?' 'He picked up a piece of the truth,' said the devil. 'That is a very bad business for you, then,' said his friend. 'Oh, not at all,' the devil replied, 'I am going to help him organize it.'
I maintain that truth is a pathless land, and you cannot approach it by any path whatsoever, by any religion, by any sect. That is my point of view, and I adhere to that absolutely and unconditionally. Truth, being limitless, unconditioned, unapproachable by any path whatsoever, cannot be organized; nor should any organization be formed to lead or coerce people along a particular path."
and also:
"This is no magnificent deed, because I do not want followers, and I mean this. The moment you follow someone you cease to follow Truth. I am not concerned whether you pay attention to what I say or not. I want to do a certain thing in the world and I am going to do it with unwavering concentration. I am concerning myself with only one essential thing: to set man free. I desire to free him from all cages, from all fears, and not to found religions, new sects, nor to establish new theories and new philosophies."
Following the dissolution, some Theosophists turned against Krishnamurti and publicly wondered whether "...the Coming had gone wrong". Mary Lutyens states that "...After all the years of proclaiming the Coming, of stressing over and over again the danger of rejecting the World Teacher when he came because he was bound to say something wholly new and unexpected, something contrary to most people’s preconceived ideas and hopes, the leaders of Theosophy, one after the other, fell into the trap against which they had so unremittingly warned others."[59]
Krishnamurti had denounced all organized belief, the notion of gurus, and the whole teacher-follower relationship, vowing instead to work in setting man absolutely, totally free. As noted by biographers Mary Lutyens and Roland Vernon, Krishnamurti never explicitly denied being the "World Teacher", though he often asserted that the matter was irrelevant. His objection to the use of the title revolved around his distaste of being viewed as a symbolic figurehead for divine intervention. The subtlety of this distinction was lost on many of his Theosophical Society admirers. Accordingly, from that time, he began to disassociate himself from the Theosophical Society and its teachings and practices, despite being on cordial terms with some of its members and ex-members throughout his life.
Krishnamurti would often refer to the totality of his work as "the" teachings" and not as "my" teachings. His concern was always about "the" teachings: the teacher had no importance, and spiritual authority was denounced.
"All authority of any kind, especially in the field of thought and understanding, is the most destructive, evil thing. Leaders destroy the followers and followers destroy the leaders. You have to be your own teacher and your own disciple. You have to question everything that man has accepted as valuable, as necessary."
Krishnamurti returned all monies and properties donated to the Order of the Star, including a castle in Holland and 5,000 acres (20 km2) of land, to their donors. He spent the rest of his life holding dialogues and giving public talks around the world on the nature of belief, truth, sorrow, freedom, death and the quest for a spiritually-fulfilled life. He accepted neither followers nor worshipers, regarding the relationship between disciple and guru as encouraging dependency and exploitation. He constantly urged people to think independently and clearly, and invited them to explore and discuss specific topics together with him, to "walk as two friends".[66] He accepted gifts and financial support freely offered to him by people inspired by his work, and continued with lecture tours and the publication of books and talk transcripts for more than half a century.
e) Middle Years
From 1930 through 1944, Krishnamurti engaged in speaking tours and in the issue of publications under the auspice of the "Star Publishing Trust" (SPT), which he had founded with a close associate and friend from the Order of the Star, D. Rajagopal. The base of operations for the new enterprise was in Ojai, where Krishnamurti, Rajagopal, and Rosalind Williams (now the wife of Rajagopal), resided in the house known as Arya Vihara. The business and organizational aspects of the SPT were administered chiefly by D. Rajagopal as Krishnamurti devoted his time to speaking and meditation. The Rajagopals' marriage was not a happy one, and the two became physically estranged after the 1931 birth of their daughter, Radha. In the relative seclusion of Arya Vihara, Krishnamurti's close friendship with Rosalind deepened into a love affair which was not made public until 1991.
During this period of time, the first of several schools based on Krishnamurti's educational ideas opened in India. Proper, holistic education and the overall rearing of children into "sane", "whole" individuals free of conflict, had been one of his major, and continuing concerns. This school and others in India and elsewhere continue to operate under the auspices of the Krishnamurti Foundations.
Throughout the 1930s, Krishnamurti spoke in Europe, Latin America, India, Australia and the United States. In 1938, he made the acquaintance of Aldous Huxley, who had arrived from Europe during 1937. The two began a close friendship which endured for many years. They held common concerns about the imminent conflict in Europe which they viewed as the outcome of the pernicious influence of nationalism. Krishnamurti's stance on World War II was often construed as pacifism and even subversion during a time of patriotic fervor in the United States, and for a time he came under surveillance by the FBI. He did not speak publicly for a period of about four years (between 1940 and 1944). During this time he lived and worked quietly at Arya Vihara, which during the war operated as a largely self-sustaining farm, with its surplus goods donated for relief efforts in Europe. Of the years spent in Ojai during the war, he was later to say: "I think it was a period of no challenge, no demand, no outgoing. I think it was a kind of everything held in; and when I left Ojai it all burst."
Krishnamurti broke the hiatus from public speaking in May 1944 with a series of talks in Ojai. These talks, and subsequent material, were published by "Krishnamurti Writings Inc" (KWINC), the successor organization to the "Star Publishing Trust". This was to be the new central Krishnamurti-related entity worldwide, whose sole purpose was the dissemination of the teaching. He had remained in contact with associates from India, and in the autumn of 1947 embarked upon a speaking tour there, attracting a new following of young intellectuals. It was also on this trip that he first encountered the Mehta sisters, Pupul and Nandini, who became lifelong associates and confidants. The sisters also attended to Krishnamurti throughout a 1948 recurrence of the "process" in Ootacamund.
When in India after World War II, many prominent personalities came to meet with him, including the then young Dalai Lama and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. In his meetings with Nehru, Krishnamurti elaborated at length on the teachings, saying in one instance, “Understanding of the self only arises in relationship, in watching yourself in relationship to people, ideas, and things; to trees, the earth, and the world around you and within you. Relationship is the mirror in which the self is revealed. Without self-knowledge there is no basis for right thought and action.” Nehru asked, “How does one start?” to which Krishnamurti replied, “Begin where you are. Read every word, every phrase, every paragraph of the mind, as it operates through thought.”
f) Later Years
Krishnamurti continued speaking around the world, in public lectures, group discussions and with concerned individuals. In the early 1960s, he made the acquaintance of respected physicist David Bohm, whose philosophical and scientific concerns regarding the essence of the physical world, and the psychological and sociological state of mankind, found parallels in Krishnamurti's philosophy. The two men soon became close friends and started a common inquiry, in the form of personal dialogues - and occasionally in group discussions with other participants - that periodically continued over nearly two decades. Several of these discussions were published in the form of books or as parts of books, and introduced a wider audience (among scientists) to Krishnamurti's ideas than was previously the case. Through Bohm, Krishnamurti also met, and held discussions with, several other members of the scientific community. Their long friendship went through a rocky interval in later years, and although they overcame their differences and remained friends until Krishnamurti's death, the relationship did not reattain its previous intensity.
Although Krishnamurti's subject matter had evolved to encompass several new and different directions, the fundamental teachings remained unchanged. In late 1980, he took the opportunity to reaffirm the basic elements of his message in a written statement that came to be known as the "Core of the Teaching". An excerpt follows:
"The core of Krishnamurti's teaching is contained in the statement he made in 1929 when he said: 'Truth is a pathless land'. Man cannot come to it through any organization, through any creed, through any dogma, priest or ritual, nor through any philosophical knowledge or psychological technique. He has to find it through the mirror of relationship, through the understanding of the contents of his own mind, through observation, and not through intellectual analysis or introspective dissection. Man has built in himself images as a sense of security—religious, political, personal. These manifest as symbols, ideas, beliefs. The burden of these dominates man's thinking, relationships and his daily life. These are the causes of our problems for they divide man from man in every relationship."
In the 1970s, Krishnamurti met several times with then Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi, with whom he had far ranging, and apparently, in some cases very serious discussions. His true impact on Indian political life is unknown; however Jayakar considers his attitude and message on meetings with Indira Gandhi as a possible influence in the lifting of certain emergency measures Mrs. Gandhi had imposed during periods of political turmoil.
Meanwhile, Krishnamurti's once close relationship with the Rajagopals had deteriorated to the point where Krishnamurti took D. Rajagopal to court in order to recover donated property and funds, publication rights for his works, manuscripts, and personal correspondence, that were in Rajagopal's possession. The litigation and ensuing cross complaints, which formally began in 1971, continued for many years. A substantial portion of materials and property was returned to Krishnamurti during his lifetime; the parties to this case finally settled all other matters in 1986, shortly after his death.
In 1984 and again in 1985 he spoke to an invited audience at the United Nations in New York, under the auspices of the Pacem in Terris Society chapter at the UN.
In November 1985 he visited India for the last time, holding a number of what came to be known as "farewell" talks and discussions between then and January 1986. These last talks included the fundamental questions he had been asking through the years, as well as newer concerns related to then recent advances in science, technology, and the way they affected humankind. Krishnamurti had commented to friends that he did not wish to invite death, but was not sure how long his body would last (he had already lost considerable weight), and once he could no longer talk, he would have "no further purpose". In his final talk, on January 4, 1986, in Madras, he again invited the audience to examine with him the nature of inquiry, the effect of technology, the nature of life and meditation, and the nature of creation:
"...So, we are enquiring into what makes a bird. What is creation behind all this? Are you waiting for me to describe it, go into it? You want me to go into it? Why (From the audience: To understand what creation is). Why do you ask that? Because I asked? No description can ever describe the origin. The origin is nameless; the origin is absolutely quiet, it's not whirring about making noise. Creation is something that is most holy, that's the most sacred thing in life, and if you have made a mess of your life, change it. Change it today, not tomorrow. If you are uncertain, find out why and be certain. If your thinking is not straight, think straight, logically. Unless all that is prepared, all that is settled, you can't enter into this world, into the world of creation."
Krishnamurti was also concerned about his legacy, about being unwittingly turned into some personage whose teachings had been handed down to special individuals, rather than the world at large. He did not want anybody to pose as an interpreter of the teaching. He warned his associates on several occasions that they were not to present themselves as spokesmen on his behalf, or as his successors after his death.
A few days before his death, in a final statement, he emphatically declared that "nobody" - among his associates, or the general public - had understood what had happened to him (as the conduit of the teaching), nor had they understood the teaching itself. He added that the "immense energy" operating in his lifetime would be gone with his death, again implying the impossibility of successors. However, he offered hope by stating that people could approach that energy and gain a measure of understanding "...if they live the teachings". In prior discussions he had compared himself with Thomas Edison, implying that he did the hard work, and now all was needed by others was a flick of the switch. In another instance he talked of Columbus going through an arduous journey to discover the New World, whereas now, it could easily be reached by jet; the ultimate implication being that even if Krishnamurti was in some way "special", in order to arrive at his level of understanding, others didn't need to be.
J. Krishnamurti died on February 17, 1986, at the age of 90, from pancreatic cancer. His remains were cremated and scattered by friends and former associates in the three countries where he had spent most of his life: India, England, and the United States of America.
recurrent themes
a) knowledge
Krishnamurti constantly emphasized the right place of thought in daily life. But he also pointed out the dangers of thought when it becomes knowledge that acts as a calcified projection of the past. According to Krishnamurti, such action distorts our perception and full understanding of the world we live in, and more specifically, the relationships that define it. Some excerpts:
"How is the mind which functions on knowledge – how is the brain which is recording all the time – to end, to see the importance of recording and not let it move in any other direction? Very simply: you insult me, you hurt me, by word, gesture, by an actual act; that leaves a mark on the brain which is memory. That memory is knowledge, that knowledge is going to interfere in my meeting you next time – obviously. ... Knowledge is necessary to act in the sense of my going home from here to the place I live; I must have knowledge for this; I must have knowledge to speak English; I must have knowledge to write a letter and so on. Knowledge as function, mechanical function, is necessary. Now if I use that knowledge in my relationship with you, another human being, I am bringing about a barrier, a division between you and me, namely the observer. That is, knowledge, in relationship, in human relationship, is destructive. That is knowledge which is the tradition, the memory, the image, which the mind has built about you, that knowledge is separative and therefore creates conflict in our relationship."
"The brain has been trained to record for in that recording there is safety, security, a sense of vitality; in that recording the mind creates the image about oneself. And that image will constantly get hurt. Is it possible to live without a single image about yourself, or about your husband, wife, children, or about the politicians, the priests, or about the ideal? It is possible, and if it is not found you will always be getting hurt, always living in a pattern in which there is no freedom. When you give complete attention there is no recording. It is only when there is inattention that you record. That is: you flatter me; I like it; the liking at that moment is inattention therefore recording takes place. But if when you flatter me I listen to it completely without any reaction, then there is no center which records."
"The brain is the source of thought. The brain is matter and thought is matter. Can the brain – with all its reactions and its immediate responses to every challenge and demand – can the brain be very still? It is not a question of ending thought, but of whether the brain can be completely still? This stillness is not physical death. See what happens when the brain is completely still."
b) fear and pleasure
Fear and pleasure were lifelong themes in his public talks. The following is an excerpt from his talk in San Diego in 1970.
“Fear is always in relation to something; it does not exist by itself. There is fear of what happened yesterday in relation to the possibility of its repetition tomorrow; there is always a fixed point from which relationship takes place. How does fear come into this? I had pain yesterday; there is the memory of it and I do not want it again tomorrow. Thinking about the pain of yesterday, thinking which involves the memory of yesterday’s pain, projects the fear of having pain again tomorrow. So it is thought that brings about fear. Thought breeds fear; thought also cultivates pleasure. To understand fear you must also understand pleasure – they are interrelated; without understanding one you cannot understand the other. This means that one cannot say ‘I must only have pleasure and no fear’; fear is the other side of the coin which is called pleasure.
Thinking with the images of yesterday’s pleasure, thought imagines that you may not have that pleasure tomorrow; so thought engenders fear. Thought tries to sustain pleasure and thereby nourishes fear.
Thought has separated itself as the analyzer and the thing to be analyzed; they are both parts of thought playing tricks upon itself. In doing all this it is refusing to examine the unconscious fears; it brings in time as a means of escaping fear and yet at the same time sustains fear.”
c) meditation
Krishnamurti used the term "meditation" to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind, or to consciously achieve a specific goal or state. He dealt with the subject of meditation in numerous public talks and discussions.
“A mind that is in meditation is concerned only with meditation, not with the meditator. The meditator is the observer, the senser, the thinker, the experiencer, and when there is the experiencer, the thinker, then he is concerned with reaching out, gaining, achieving, experiencing. And that thing which is timeless cannot be experienced. There is no experience at all. There is only that which is not nameable.”
“You know, in all this there are various powers like clairvoyance, reading somebody’s thought – which is the most disgusting thing to do: it is like reading letters that are private. There are various powers. You know what I am talking about, don’t you? You call them siddhis, don’t you? Do you know that all these things are like candles in the sun? When there is no sun there is darkness, and then the candle and the light of the candle become very important. But when there is the sun, the light, the beauty, the clarity, then all these powers, these siddhis – developing various centres, chakras, kundalini, you know all that business – are like candlelight; they have no value at all. And when you have that light, you don’t want anything else.”
"Meditation is one of the greatest arts in life-perhaps the greatest, and one cannot possibly learn it from anybody, that is the beauty of it. It has no technique and therefore no authority. When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy-if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation."
“Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.”
“Meditation is the emptying of the mind of all thought, for thought and feeling dissipate energy. They are repetitive, producing mechanical activities which are a necessary part of existence. But they are only part, and thought and feeling cannot possibly enter into the immensity of life. Quite a different approach is necessary, not the path of habit, association and the known; there must be freedom from these. Meditation is the emptying of the mind of the known. It cannot be done by thought or by the hidden prompting of thought, nor by desire in the form of prayer, nor through the self-effacing hypnotism of words, images, hopes, and vanities. All these have to come to an end, easily, without effort and choice, in the flame of awareness.”
d) education
Krishnamurti founded several schools around the world. When asked, he enumerated the following as his educational aims:
1. Global outlook: A vision of the whole as distinct from the part; there should never be a sectarian outlook, but always a holistic outlook free from all prejudice.
2. Concern for man and the environment: Humanity is part of nature, and if nature is not cared for, it will boomerang on man. Only the right education, and deep affection between people everywhere, will resolve many problems including the environmental challenges.
3. Religious spirit, which includes the scientific temper: The religious mind is alone, not lonely. It is in communion with people and nature.
e) the world crisis
To Krishnamurti, the world crisis and its solution are the equal responsibility of every individual, everywhere. He often underscored this point by telling his audience, "you are the world", asserting that ultimately there is no escape from the fact that every individual can help in healing the world - by first healing themselves. Some excerpts:
"And as we are-the world is. That is, if we are greedy, envious, competitive, our society will be competitive, envious, greedy, which brings misery and war. The State is what we are. To bring about order and peace, we must begin with ourselves and not with society, not with the State, for the world is ourselves"..."If we would bring about a sane and happy society we must begin with ourselves and not with another, not outside of ourselves, but with ourselves."
"If you are not at all concerned with the world but only with your personal salvation, following certain beliefs and superstitions, following gurus, then I am afraid it will be impossible for you and the speaker to communicate with each other. We are not concerned at all with private personal salvation but we are concerned, earnestly, seriously, with what the human mind has become, what humanity is facing. We are concerned at looking at this world and what a human being living in this world has to do, what is his role?"
“The present crisis is different because we are dealing not with money, not with tangible things but with ideas. The crisis is in the field of thought, of ideas, of intellect. Before, evil was recognized as evil, murder was recognized as murder, but now murder is a means to achieve a noble result. You justify the wrong means through the intellect. When intellect has the upper hand in human life, it brings an unprecedented crisis. The other cause of this unprecedented crisis is the extraordinary importance man is giving to sensate values - to property, to name, to caste, to country.”
influence
Krishnamurti's lasting influence is hard to gauge in an objective way; there is no organizational or other entity based on his philosophy, whose progress can be measured. His insistence that there be no successors or interpreters has so far prevented any individual or group from claiming to represent a continuity, or a unique understanding, of his philosophy. Krishnamurti himself remarked in 1929, at the dissolution of the Order of the Star, that he was not interested in numbers, stating: "If there are only five people who will listen, who will live, who have their faces turned towards eternity, it will be sufficient."
Interest in him and his work has persisted in the years since his death. Many books, as well as audio, video, and computer materials, remain in print and are carried by major online and traditional retailers. The four official Foundations continue with the maintenance of archives, dissemination of the teachings in an increasing number of languages, new conversions to digital and other media, development of websites, sponsoring of television programs, and with organizing meetings and dialogues of interested persons around the world. According to communications and press releases from the Foundations, their mailing lists, and individuals' inquiries, continue to grow. The various schools and educational institutions also continue to grow, with new projects added alongside their declared goal of holistic education. There are also active unofficial Krishnamurti Committees operating in several countries.
Since his death, biographies, reminiscences, research papers, critical examinations, and book-length studies of Krishnamurti and his philosophy have continued to appear. Cursory (and necessarily incomplete) examination of internet search traffic and group discussion forums indicates that among similar topics, interest on Krishnamurti remains high.
Because of his ideas and his era, Krishnamurti has come to be seen as an exemplar of those spiritual teachers who disavow formal rituals and dogma. His conception of truth as a "pathless land", with the possibility of immediate liberation, is mirrored in teachings as diverse as those of est, Bruce Lee, Barry Long, and the Dalai Lama.
Krishnamurti was acquainted with, and (by their admission) influenced the works of, the mythologist Joseph Campbell, artists Jackson Pollock and Beatrice Wood, educator Terrence Webster-Doyle and counter-culture author Alan Watts. Eckhart Tolle, author and speaker on spiritual subjects, and well-known self-help lecturer/author Deepak Chopra, both claimed Krishnamurti as one of their influences. Writer/philosopher Iris Murdoch also met with Krishnamurti, while Live's album Mental Jewelry is influenced by Krishnamurti's ideas.
In India, with its long tradition of wandering "holy" men, hermits, and independent religious teachers, Krishnamurti attracted the attention (and occasionally the unwanted admiration) of large numbers of people in public lectures and personal interviews. He was, and is presently, considered a "great teacher" by such diverse religious figures as the respected mystic Ramana Maharshi, the spiritual teacher Anandamayi Ma, as well as figures more well-known to the West such as Osho. Spiritual teacher Vimala Thakar also met with Krishnamurti in 1960.
As was also often the case elsewhere, Krishnamurti additionally attracted the interest of the mainstream religious establishment in India. He was friendly, and had a number of discussions with, well known Hindu and Buddhist scholars and leaders. Several of these discussions were later published as chapters in various Krishnamurti books. Although Krishnamurti had a special tenderness for the true sannyasi or Buddhist monk, his criticism of their rituals, disciplines, and practices was devastating.
Twentieth-century gnostic philosopher and occultist Samael Aun Weor praised Krishnamurti's teachings, stating that his "inner spirit" was a "highly realized Buddha", although he questioned his handling by the theosophists and its effect on his spiritual development.
Any discussion of influence, however expansive, deserves to be weighed against Krishnamurti's own measure of success i.e., whether individuals really understand, and therefore "live and breathe", the teaching. Regarding this measure of influence or success, the last, and only, definitive public statement belongs to Krishnamurti himself. In a dismal prognosis, delivered 10 days prior his death in 1986, his words were simple, and emphatic: "nobody" – among his associates or the world at large – had understood Krishnamurti, his life, or the teaching.
criticism
A number of people questioned whether Krishnamurti's attitudes were conditioned by privilege, as he was supported, even pampered, by devoted followers starting as far back as his "discovery" by the theosophists. Helen Nearing, who had known Krishnamurti in the 1920s, made such an assessment in an autobiographical volume (Loving and Leaving the Good Life, see Other Biographies section below). She also thought that he was at such an "elevated" level that he was incapable of forming normal personal relationships.
In her 1991 book, Lives in the Shadow with J. Krishnamurti (see Other Biographies), Radha Rajagopal Sloss, the daughter of estranged Krishnamurti associates Rosalind and Desikacharya Rajagopal, wrote of Krishnamurti's relationship with her parents, including a secret affair between Krishnamurti and Rosalind which lasted for many years. The public revelation was received with surprise and consternation by many individuals, and was also dealt with in a rebuttal volume of biography by Mary Lutyens (Krishnamurti and the Rajagopals, also see Other Biographies).
selected publications
Apart from a few noted exceptions - see subsection below - the majority of Krishnamurti's books are edited transcripts of his talks and discussions, arranged either thematically, chronologically, by location, or in a combination of the above. Unless otherwise specified, the entries have been arranged by the publication date provided. (Format: Title, year of first publication, different editions: ISBN, notes)
a) Krishnamurti on Krishnamurti
* Krishnamurti's Notebook, 1976, Krishnamurti Publications of America expanded 2004 edition: ISBN 1-888004-63-0. Published journal that Krishnamurti kept between June 1961 and March 1962. [With the publication of this book, for the first time the general public was informed about the so-called "process", a strange condition that having started in the 1920s, intermittently affected Krishnamurti throughout his life].
* Krishnamurti's Journal, 1982, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-064841-4, LCC B5134.K765A34 1982. A personal journal, that was started in 1973 and kept intermittently until 1975.
* Krishnamurti to Himself: His Last Journal, 1987, HarperCollins 1993 paperback: ISBN 0-06-250649-8. Transcribed from audio tape recordings made at his home in the Ojai Valley between February 1983 and March 1984.
b) list of Books
As noted previously, various official Krishnamurti-related entities have published, and continue to publish, transcripts of Krishnamurti's talks and discussions. These verbatim reports and transcriptions are not included here. See also Collected Works section below. The following is not a complete listing.
* At the Feet of the Master: Towards Discipleship, 1910, Quest Books 2001 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0803-4. [The author of this book is also listed as "Alcyone". There is considerable scepticism among Krishnamurti's biographers and others about Krishnamurti's true role in the production of this and other works by so-called "Alcyone". Among other objections, a consensus of the sceptics considers such works as Theosophical literature.]
* The Immortal Friend, 1928, New York, Boni & Liveright hardcover: no ISBN, Kessinger Publishing 2004 paperback edition: ISBN 1417978554. Poetry.
* Life in Freedom, 1928, New York, H. Liveright: no ISBN, Satori Resources 1986 reprint: ISBN 0-937277-00-2. Compiled from camp-fire addresses given in Benares, Ojai, and Ommen during 1928.
* Education and the Significance of Life, 1953 Krishnamurti Foundation Trust, HarperSanFrancisco 1981 edition: ISBN 0-06-064876-7.
* The First and Last Freedom, 1954, HarperSanFrancisco 1975 reprint: ISBN 0-06-064831-7.
* Commentaries on Living: Series One, 1956, New York, Harper, Quest Books 1994 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0390-3. Series is subtitled From the notebooks of J. Krishnamurti, D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Commentaries on Living: Series Two, 1958, New York, Harper, Quest Books 1967 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0415-2. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Commentaries on Living: Series Three, 1960, Quest Books 1967: ISBN 0-8356-0402-0. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Life Ahead: On Learning and the Search for Meaning, 1963, Harper & Row, New World Library 2005 edition: ISBN 1-57731-517-0.
* Think on These Things, 1964, Harper Perennial 1989 reprint: ISBN 0-06-091609-5. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Freedom from the Known, 1969, HarperSanFrancisco 1975 reprint: ISBN 0-06-064808-2. M. Lutyens, editor.
* Talks with American Students 1968, 1970, Shambhala Publications: ISBN 0-87773-021-0.
* The Only Revolution, 1970, Gollancz hardcover: ISBN 0-575-00387-1. M. Lutyens, editor.
* The Urgency of Change, 1970, HarperCollins hardcover: ISBN 0060648724. M. Lutyens, editor.
* The Flight of the Eagle, 1971, HarperCollins 1973 paperback edition: ISBN 0060916109. Subtitled Authentic report of talks and discussions in London, Amsterdam, Paris, and Saanen, Switzerland.
* The Impossible Question, 1972, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-0606-4838-X.
* You Are the World: Authentic Reports of Talks and Discussions in American Universities, 1972, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-080303-7, Krishnamurti Foundation India 2001 edition: ISBN 81-87326-02-6.
* The Awakening of Intelligence, 1973, Harper & Row paperback 1987: ISBN 0-06-064834-1. G. & C. Wingfield Digby, editors.
* Beyond Violence, 1973, HarperCollins College Div.: ISBN 0-06-064839-2.
* Krishnamurti on Education, 1974, New Delhi, Orient Longman, Krishnamurti Foundation of America 2001 edition: ISBN 81-87326-00-X. Talks and discussions with students and teachers of Rishi Valley and Rajghat schools in India.
* Beginnings of Learning, 1975, London: Gollancz: ISBN 0-5750-1928-X. Edited transcripts of Krishnamurti's discussions on education with students and staff at the Brockwood Park School, England.
* Truth and Actuality, 1977, Victor Gollancz, London: ISBN 0-575-02325-2, HarperSanFrancisco 1980 edition: ISBN 0-06-064875-9.
* The Wholeness of Life, 1978, London, Gollancz: ISBN 0-0606-4874-0, HarperCollins 1981 paperback edition: ISBN 0-06-064868-6. Abridgement of discussions held between Krishnamurti, physicist David Bohm, and psychiatrist David Shainbert.
* Meditations, 1979, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-0606-4851-1, Shambhala Publications 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57062-941-2. Compilation of quotes/writings on meditation, Evelyne Blau, editor.
* From Darkness to Light: Poems and Parables: The Collected Works of Krishnamurti Volume One, 1980, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-064832-5. This is completely different from the Collected Works Volume 1 listed below.
* Exploration into Insight, 1980, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064811-2.
* The Ending of Time, 1985, Harper & Row, San Francisco: ISBN 0-06-064796-5. Discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* The Way of Intelligence, 1985, Krishnamurti Foundation India: ISBN 81-87326-47-6.
* The Future of Humanity: A Conversation, 1986, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064797-3. Further discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* Last Talks at Saanen, 1985, 1987, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064798-1.
* The Future Is Now: Last Talks in India, 1989, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-250484-3. Krishnamurti's last public talks.
* Meeting Life: Writings and Talks on Finding Your Path Without Retreating from Society, 1991, HarperSanFrancisco: ISBN 0-06-250526-2.
* Freedom, Love, and Action, 1994, Shambhala 2001 paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2826-2. Based on talks given at Brockwood Park School, England.
* Total Freedom: The Essential Krishnamurti, 1996, HarperSanFrancisco: ISBN 0-06-064880-5. Introduction to Krishnamurti and selections from the breadth of his works, M. Cadogan, A. Kishbaugh, M. Lee, and R. McCoy editors.
* Limits of Thought: Discussions, 1999, Routledge, London: ISBN 0-415-19398-2. More discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* This Light in Oneself: True Meditation, 1999, Shambhala Publications: ISBN 1-57062-442-9.
* To Be Human, 2000, Shambhala, paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2596-4. David Skitt, editor.
* Can Humanity Change?, 2003, Shambhala, paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2826-2. Subtitled J. Krishnamurti in dialogue with Buddhists, David Skitt, editor.
* The First Step is the Last Step, 2004, Krishnamurti Foundation India: ISBN 8187326565.
* As One Is, 2007, Hohm Press: ISBN 1890772623. Subtitled To free the mind of all conditioning. Collects the 1955 Ojai public talks.
c) the collected works of J. Krishnamurti
This series consists of previously published talks, discussions, question and answer sessions, and other writings, covering the period from 1933-1967. Originally published as a stand-alone series, it has become part of The Complete Teachings Project, an effort by the Krishnamurti Foundations to create a cohesively edited collection of the entire body of Krishnamurti's works from 1933 onwards. It is estimated that the Complete Teachings would run to over 80 volumes.
* Volume I (1933-1934): The Art of Listening, 1991, Krishnamurti Foundation of America: ISBN 0-8403-6341-9
* Volume II (1934-1935): What Is the Right Action?, 1991, Krishnamurti Publications of America: ISBN 1-888004-32-0. Edward Weston, editor.
* Volume 3 (1936-1944): The Mirror of Relationship, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company: ISBN 0-8403-6236-6
* Volume 4 (1945-1948): The Observer Is the Observed, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6237-4
* Volume 5 (1948-1949): Choiceless Awareness, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6238-2
* Volume 6 (1949-1952): The Origin of Conflict, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6262-5
* Volume 7 (1952-1953): Tradition and Creativity, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6257-9
* Volume 8 (1953-1955): What Are You Seeking?, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6266-8
* Volume 9 (1955-1956): The Answer is in the Problem, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6260-9
* Volume 10 (1956-1957): A Light to Yourself, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6268-4
* Volume 11 (1958-1960): Crisis in Consciousness, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6272-2
* Volume 12 (1961): There is No Thinker, Only Thought, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6286-2
* Volume 13 (1962-1963): A Psychological Revolution, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6287-0
* Volume 14 (1963-1964): The New Mind, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6288-9
* Volume 15 (1964-1965): The Dignity of Living, 1992, Krishnamurti Foundation of America: ISBN 0-8403-6282-X
* Volume 16 (1965-1966): The Beauty of Death, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6307-9
* Volume 17 (1966-1967): Perennial Questions, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6314-1
Krishnamurti was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in what was then colonial India. In early adolescence, he had a chance encounter with prominent occultist and high-ranking theosophist C.W. Leadbeater in the grounds of the Theosophical Society headquarters at Adyar in Madras (now Chennai). He was subsequently raised under the tutelage of Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater, leaders of the Society at the time, who believed him to be a "vehicle" for an expected World Teacher. As a young man, he disavowed this idea and dissolved the worldwide organization (the Order of the Star) established to support it. He claimed allegiance to no nationality, caste, religion, or philosophy, and spent the rest of his life traveling the world as an individual speaker, speaking to large and small groups, as well as with interested individuals. He authored a number of books, among them The First and Last Freedom, The Only Revolution, and Krishnamurti's Notebook. In addition, a large collection of his talks and discussions have been published. His last public talk was in Madras, India, in January 1986, a month before his death at his home in Ojai, California.
His supporters, working through several non-profit foundations, oversee a number of independent schools centered on his views on education – in India, Great Britain and the United States – and continue to transcribe and distribute many of his thousands of talks, group and individual discussions, and other writings, publishing them in a variety of formats including print, audio, video and digital formats as well as online, in many languages.
biography
a) Family Background and Childhood
Jiddu Krishnamurti came from a family of Telugu-speaking Brahmins. His father, Jiddu Narainiah , was employed as an official of the then colonial British administration. Krishnamurti was very fond of his mother, Sanjeevamma, who died when he was ten. His parents were second cousins, having a total of eleven children, only six of whom survived childhood. They were strict vegetarians, even shunning eggs, and throwing away any food that the "shadow of an Englishman had crossed".
He was born on May 12, 1895 in the small town of Madanapalle in Chittoor District in Andhra Pradesh. As the eighth child, who happened to be a boy, he was, in accordance with common Hindu practice, named after Sri Krishna.
In 1903, the family settled in Cudappah, where Krishnamurti during a previous stay had contracted malaria, a disease with which he would suffer recurrent bouts over many years. He was a sensitive and sickly child; "vague and dreamy", he was often taken to be mentally retarded, and was beaten regularly at school by his teachers and at home by his father. Several decades later, Krishnamurti reminisced about his state of mind during childhood: "No thought entered his mind. He was watching and listening and nothing else. Thought with its associations never arose. There was no image-making. He often attempted to think but no thought would come." Writing about his childhood and early adolescence in memoirs he composed when he was eighteen years old, Krishnamurti described psychic experiences, such as "seeing" his sister, who had died in 1904, and also his mother, who had died in 1905. Another aspect of his childhood was his bond with nature that continued throughout his life: "...He always had this strange lack of distance between himself and the trees, rivers and mountains. It wasn't cultivated."
Krishnamurti's father Narainiah retired at the end of 1907, and, being of limited means, wrote to Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, seeking employment at the Theosophical headquarters estate at Adyar. Although he was an observant orthodox Brahmin, Narainiah had been a member of the Theosophical Society since 1882. He was eventually hired by the Society as a clerk, and he moved his family there in January, 1909. Narainiah and his sons were at first assigned to live in a small cottage that lacked adequate sanitation and which was located just outside the Theosophical compound. As a result of poor living conditions, Krishnamurti and his brothers were soon undernourished and infested with lice.
b) The "Discovery" and its Consequences
It was in April 1909, a few months after the last move, that Krishnamurti first met C.W. Leadbeater, who claimed clairvoyance. During his forays to the Theosophical estate's beach at the nearby Adyar river, Leadbeater had noticed Krishnamurti (who also frequented the beach with others), and was amazed by the "most wonderful aura he had ever seen, without a particle of selfishness in it". This strong impression was notwithstanding Krishnamurti's outward appearance, which, according to eyewitnesses, was pretty common, unimpressive, and unkempt. The boy was also considered "particularly dim-witted"; he often had "a vacant expression" that "gave him an almost moronic look". Leadbeater remained "unshaken" that the boy would become "a great teacher".
Pupul Jayakar, in her biography of Krishnamurti, quotes him speaking of that period in his life some 75 years later: "The boy had always said, 'I will do whatever you want'. There was an element of subservience, obedience. The boy was vague, uncertain, woolly; he didn't seem to care what was happening. He was like a vessel, with a large hole in it, whatever was put in, went through, nothing remained."
Following his "discovery", Krishnamurti was taken under the wing of the leadership of the Theosophical Society in Adyar and their inner circle. Leadbeater and a small number of trusted associates undertook the task of educating, protecting, and generally preparing Krishnamurti as the "vehicle" of the expected World Teacher. Krishnamurti (or Krishnaji as he was often called) and his younger brother Nitya were privately tutored at the Theosophical compound in Madras, and later exposed to a comparatively opulent life among a segment of European high society, as they continued their education abroad. In spite of his history of problems with school work and concerns about his capacities and physical condition, the fourteen-year-old Krishnamurti within six months was able to speak and write competently in English.
During this time, Krishnamurti had developed a strong bond with Annie Besant, and came to view her as a surrogate mother. Apart from his early close relationship with his mother, this was the first of several important and intimate relationships that Krishnamurti established with women during his lifetime. His father, pushed into the background by the swirl of interest around Krishnamurti, sued the Theosophical Society in 1912 to protect his parental interests. After a protracted legal battle, Besant took custody of Krishnamurti and his brother Nitya. As a result of this separation from his family and home, Krishnamurti and his brother became extremely close, and in the following years they often traveled together.
The Theosophical Leadership in 1911 established a new organization called the Order of the Star in the East, to prepare the world for the aforementioned "coming". Krishnamurti was named as its head, with senior Theosophists in various positions. Membership was open to anybody who accepted the doctrine of the coming of the World Teacher. Controversy erupted soon after, both within the Theosophical Society and without, in Hindu circles and the Indian press.
c) Growing Up
Mary Lutyens, in her biography of Krishnamurti, states that there was a time when he fully believed that he was to become the World Teacher after correct spiritual and secular guidance and education. Another biographer describes the daily program imposed on him by Leadbeater and his associates, which among other things included rigorous exercise and sports, tutoring in a variety of school subjects, theosophical and religious lessons, yoga and meditation, as well as instruction in proper hygiene and the ways of British society and culture. Unlike sports, where he showed natural aptitude, Krishnamurti always had problems with formal schooling and was not academically inclined. He eventually gave up university education after several attempts at admission. He did take to foreign languages, eventually speaking several (French and Italian among them) with some fluency. In this period, he apparently enjoyed reading parts of the Old Testament, and was impressed by some of the Western classics, especially Shelley, Dostoyevsky and Nietzsche. He also had, since childhood, considerable observational and mechanical skills, being able to correctly disassemble and reassemble complicated machinery.
His public image, as originally cultivated by the theosophists, "...was to be characterized by a well-polished exterior, a sobriety of purpose, a cosmopolitan outlook and an otherworldly, almost beatific detachment in his demeanor." And in fact, "...All of these can be said to have characterised Krishnamurti's public image to the end of his life." It was apparently clear early on that he "...possessed an innate personal magnetism, not of a warm physical variety, but nonetheless emotive in its austerity, and inclined to inspire veneration." However, as Krishnamurti was growing up, he showed signs of adolescent rebellion and emotional instability, chafing at the regimen imposed on him, and occasionally having doubts about the future prescribed him.
Krishnamurti and Nitya were taken to England for the first time in April 1911. Between that time and the start of World War I in 1914, they also visited several other European countries, always accompanied by theosophist chaperones. After the war, Krishnamurti (again accompanied by his brother) embarked on a series of lectures, meetings, and discussions around the world relating to his duties as the head of the Order Of The Star. In 1922, Krishnamurti and Nitya travelled from Sydney to California on their way to Switzerland. While in California, they lodged at a cottage in then relatively secluded Ojai Valley, offered to them for the occasion by an American member of the Order.[36] At Ojai, the brothers also met Rosalind Williams, the sister of a local Theosophist, who eventually became close to them both. For the first time the brothers were without immediate supervision by their Theosophical Society minders; they spent their time in nature hikes and picnics with friends, spiritual contemplation, and planning their course within the "World Teacher Project". Krishnamurti and Nitya found the Ojai Valley to be very agreeable, and eventually a trust, formed by supporters, purchased for them the cottage and surrounding property, which henceforth became Krishnamurti's official place of residence.
It was in Ojai, in August 1922, that Krishnamurti went through an intense, "life-changing" experience. It has been simultaneously, and invariably, characterised as a spiritual awakening, a psychological transformation, and a physical conditioning. Krishnamurti and those around him would refer to it as "the process", and it continued, at very frequent intervals and varying forms of intensity, until his death. According to witnesses, it started on the 17th, with Krishnamurti complaining of extraordinary pain at the nape of his neck, and a hard, ball-like swelling. Over the next couple of days, the symptoms worsened, with increasing pain, extreme physical discomfort and sensitivity, total loss of appetite and occasional delirious ramblings. Then, he seemed to lapse into unconsciousness; actually, he recounted that he was very much aware of his surroundings and while in that state, he had an experience of mystical union. The following day the symptoms, and the experience, intensified, climaxing with a sense of "immense peace".
"...I was supremely happy, for I had seen. Nothing could ever be the same. I have drunk at the clear and pure waters and my thirst was appeased. ...I have seen the Light. I have touched compassion which heals all sorrow and suffering; it is not for myself, but for the world. ...Love in all its glory has intoxicated my heart; my heart can never be closed. I have drunk at the fountain of Joy and eternal Beauty. I am God-intoxicated."
Similar incidents continued with short intermissions until October, and later eventually resumed regularly, always involving varying degrees of physical pain to mark the start of "the process", accompanied by what is variably described as "presence", "benediction", "immensity", and "sacredness", which was reportedly often felt by others present.
Several explanations have been proposed for the events of 1922, and "the process" in general. Leadbeater and other theosophists, although they expected the "vehicle" to have certain paranormal experiences, were mystified by the developments and were at a loss to explain the whole thing. During Krishnamurti's later years, the continuing "process" often came up as a subject in private discussions between himself and his closest associates; although these discussions shed some light on the subject, they were ultimately inconclusive regarding its nature and provenance.
The "process", and the inability of Leadbeater to explain it satisfactorily, if at all, had other consequences according to biographer R. Vernon:
"The process at Ojai, whatever its cause or validity, was a cataclysmic milestone for Krishna. Up until this time his spiritual progress, chequered though it might have been, had been planned with solemn deliberation by Theosophy's grandees. ...Something new had now occurred for which Krishna's training had not entirely prepared him. ...A burden was lifted from his conscience and he took his first step towards becoming an individual. ...In terms of his future role as a teacher, the process was his bedrock. ...It had come to him alone and had not been planted in him by his mentors...It provided Krishna with the soil in which his newfound spirit of confidence and independence could take root."
Finally, the unexpected death of his brother Nitya on November 11, 1925 at age 27 from tuberculosis after a long history with the disease, fundamentally shook Krishnamurti's belief in Theosophy and his faith in the leaders of the Theosophical Society. According to eyewitness accounts, the news "...broke him down completely". He struggled for days to overcome his sorrow, eventually "...going through an inner revolution, finding new strength". The experience of his brother's death apparently shattered any remaining illusions, and things would never be the same again:
"...An old dream is dead and a new one is being born, as a flower that pushes through the solid earth. A new vision is coming into being and a greater consciousness is being unfolded. ...A new strength, born of suffering, is pulsating in the veins and a new sympathy and understanding is being born of past suffering - a greater desire to see others suffer less, and, if they must suffer, to see that they bear it nobly and come out of it without too many scars. I have wept, but I do not want others to weep; but if they do, I know what it means."
d) Break with the Past
In the next few years Krishnamurti's new vision and consciousness continued to develop and reached a climax in 1929, when he rebuffed attempts by Leadbeater and Besant to continue with the Order of the Star. Krishnamurti dissolved the Order at the annual Star Camp at Ommen, the Netherlands, on August 3, 1929. where, in front of Annie Besant and several thousand members, he gave a speech saying among other things:
"You may remember the story of how the devil and a friend of his were walking down the street, when they saw ahead of them a man stoop down and pick up something from the ground, look at it, and put it away in his pocket. The friend said to the devil, 'What did that man pick up?' 'He picked up a piece of the truth,' said the devil. 'That is a very bad business for you, then,' said his friend. 'Oh, not at all,' the devil replied, 'I am going to help him organize it.'
I maintain that truth is a pathless land, and you cannot approach it by any path whatsoever, by any religion, by any sect. That is my point of view, and I adhere to that absolutely and unconditionally. Truth, being limitless, unconditioned, unapproachable by any path whatsoever, cannot be organized; nor should any organization be formed to lead or coerce people along a particular path."
and also:
"This is no magnificent deed, because I do not want followers, and I mean this. The moment you follow someone you cease to follow Truth. I am not concerned whether you pay attention to what I say or not. I want to do a certain thing in the world and I am going to do it with unwavering concentration. I am concerning myself with only one essential thing: to set man free. I desire to free him from all cages, from all fears, and not to found religions, new sects, nor to establish new theories and new philosophies."
Following the dissolution, some Theosophists turned against Krishnamurti and publicly wondered whether "...the Coming had gone wrong". Mary Lutyens states that "...After all the years of proclaiming the Coming, of stressing over and over again the danger of rejecting the World Teacher when he came because he was bound to say something wholly new and unexpected, something contrary to most people’s preconceived ideas and hopes, the leaders of Theosophy, one after the other, fell into the trap against which they had so unremittingly warned others."[59]
Krishnamurti had denounced all organized belief, the notion of gurus, and the whole teacher-follower relationship, vowing instead to work in setting man absolutely, totally free. As noted by biographers Mary Lutyens and Roland Vernon, Krishnamurti never explicitly denied being the "World Teacher", though he often asserted that the matter was irrelevant. His objection to the use of the title revolved around his distaste of being viewed as a symbolic figurehead for divine intervention. The subtlety of this distinction was lost on many of his Theosophical Society admirers. Accordingly, from that time, he began to disassociate himself from the Theosophical Society and its teachings and practices, despite being on cordial terms with some of its members and ex-members throughout his life.
Krishnamurti would often refer to the totality of his work as "the" teachings" and not as "my" teachings. His concern was always about "the" teachings: the teacher had no importance, and spiritual authority was denounced.
"All authority of any kind, especially in the field of thought and understanding, is the most destructive, evil thing. Leaders destroy the followers and followers destroy the leaders. You have to be your own teacher and your own disciple. You have to question everything that man has accepted as valuable, as necessary."
Krishnamurti returned all monies and properties donated to the Order of the Star, including a castle in Holland and 5,000 acres (20 km2) of land, to their donors. He spent the rest of his life holding dialogues and giving public talks around the world on the nature of belief, truth, sorrow, freedom, death and the quest for a spiritually-fulfilled life. He accepted neither followers nor worshipers, regarding the relationship between disciple and guru as encouraging dependency and exploitation. He constantly urged people to think independently and clearly, and invited them to explore and discuss specific topics together with him, to "walk as two friends".[66] He accepted gifts and financial support freely offered to him by people inspired by his work, and continued with lecture tours and the publication of books and talk transcripts for more than half a century.
e) Middle Years
From 1930 through 1944, Krishnamurti engaged in speaking tours and in the issue of publications under the auspice of the "Star Publishing Trust" (SPT), which he had founded with a close associate and friend from the Order of the Star, D. Rajagopal. The base of operations for the new enterprise was in Ojai, where Krishnamurti, Rajagopal, and Rosalind Williams (now the wife of Rajagopal), resided in the house known as Arya Vihara. The business and organizational aspects of the SPT were administered chiefly by D. Rajagopal as Krishnamurti devoted his time to speaking and meditation. The Rajagopals' marriage was not a happy one, and the two became physically estranged after the 1931 birth of their daughter, Radha. In the relative seclusion of Arya Vihara, Krishnamurti's close friendship with Rosalind deepened into a love affair which was not made public until 1991.
During this period of time, the first of several schools based on Krishnamurti's educational ideas opened in India. Proper, holistic education and the overall rearing of children into "sane", "whole" individuals free of conflict, had been one of his major, and continuing concerns. This school and others in India and elsewhere continue to operate under the auspices of the Krishnamurti Foundations.
Throughout the 1930s, Krishnamurti spoke in Europe, Latin America, India, Australia and the United States. In 1938, he made the acquaintance of Aldous Huxley, who had arrived from Europe during 1937. The two began a close friendship which endured for many years. They held common concerns about the imminent conflict in Europe which they viewed as the outcome of the pernicious influence of nationalism. Krishnamurti's stance on World War II was often construed as pacifism and even subversion during a time of patriotic fervor in the United States, and for a time he came under surveillance by the FBI. He did not speak publicly for a period of about four years (between 1940 and 1944). During this time he lived and worked quietly at Arya Vihara, which during the war operated as a largely self-sustaining farm, with its surplus goods donated for relief efforts in Europe. Of the years spent in Ojai during the war, he was later to say: "I think it was a period of no challenge, no demand, no outgoing. I think it was a kind of everything held in; and when I left Ojai it all burst."
Krishnamurti broke the hiatus from public speaking in May 1944 with a series of talks in Ojai. These talks, and subsequent material, were published by "Krishnamurti Writings Inc" (KWINC), the successor organization to the "Star Publishing Trust". This was to be the new central Krishnamurti-related entity worldwide, whose sole purpose was the dissemination of the teaching. He had remained in contact with associates from India, and in the autumn of 1947 embarked upon a speaking tour there, attracting a new following of young intellectuals. It was also on this trip that he first encountered the Mehta sisters, Pupul and Nandini, who became lifelong associates and confidants. The sisters also attended to Krishnamurti throughout a 1948 recurrence of the "process" in Ootacamund.
When in India after World War II, many prominent personalities came to meet with him, including the then young Dalai Lama and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. In his meetings with Nehru, Krishnamurti elaborated at length on the teachings, saying in one instance, “Understanding of the self only arises in relationship, in watching yourself in relationship to people, ideas, and things; to trees, the earth, and the world around you and within you. Relationship is the mirror in which the self is revealed. Without self-knowledge there is no basis for right thought and action.” Nehru asked, “How does one start?” to which Krishnamurti replied, “Begin where you are. Read every word, every phrase, every paragraph of the mind, as it operates through thought.”
f) Later Years
Krishnamurti continued speaking around the world, in public lectures, group discussions and with concerned individuals. In the early 1960s, he made the acquaintance of respected physicist David Bohm, whose philosophical and scientific concerns regarding the essence of the physical world, and the psychological and sociological state of mankind, found parallels in Krishnamurti's philosophy. The two men soon became close friends and started a common inquiry, in the form of personal dialogues - and occasionally in group discussions with other participants - that periodically continued over nearly two decades. Several of these discussions were published in the form of books or as parts of books, and introduced a wider audience (among scientists) to Krishnamurti's ideas than was previously the case. Through Bohm, Krishnamurti also met, and held discussions with, several other members of the scientific community. Their long friendship went through a rocky interval in later years, and although they overcame their differences and remained friends until Krishnamurti's death, the relationship did not reattain its previous intensity.
Although Krishnamurti's subject matter had evolved to encompass several new and different directions, the fundamental teachings remained unchanged. In late 1980, he took the opportunity to reaffirm the basic elements of his message in a written statement that came to be known as the "Core of the Teaching". An excerpt follows:
"The core of Krishnamurti's teaching is contained in the statement he made in 1929 when he said: 'Truth is a pathless land'. Man cannot come to it through any organization, through any creed, through any dogma, priest or ritual, nor through any philosophical knowledge or psychological technique. He has to find it through the mirror of relationship, through the understanding of the contents of his own mind, through observation, and not through intellectual analysis or introspective dissection. Man has built in himself images as a sense of security—religious, political, personal. These manifest as symbols, ideas, beliefs. The burden of these dominates man's thinking, relationships and his daily life. These are the causes of our problems for they divide man from man in every relationship."
In the 1970s, Krishnamurti met several times with then Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi, with whom he had far ranging, and apparently, in some cases very serious discussions. His true impact on Indian political life is unknown; however Jayakar considers his attitude and message on meetings with Indira Gandhi as a possible influence in the lifting of certain emergency measures Mrs. Gandhi had imposed during periods of political turmoil.
Meanwhile, Krishnamurti's once close relationship with the Rajagopals had deteriorated to the point where Krishnamurti took D. Rajagopal to court in order to recover donated property and funds, publication rights for his works, manuscripts, and personal correspondence, that were in Rajagopal's possession. The litigation and ensuing cross complaints, which formally began in 1971, continued for many years. A substantial portion of materials and property was returned to Krishnamurti during his lifetime; the parties to this case finally settled all other matters in 1986, shortly after his death.
In 1984 and again in 1985 he spoke to an invited audience at the United Nations in New York, under the auspices of the Pacem in Terris Society chapter at the UN.
In November 1985 he visited India for the last time, holding a number of what came to be known as "farewell" talks and discussions between then and January 1986. These last talks included the fundamental questions he had been asking through the years, as well as newer concerns related to then recent advances in science, technology, and the way they affected humankind. Krishnamurti had commented to friends that he did not wish to invite death, but was not sure how long his body would last (he had already lost considerable weight), and once he could no longer talk, he would have "no further purpose". In his final talk, on January 4, 1986, in Madras, he again invited the audience to examine with him the nature of inquiry, the effect of technology, the nature of life and meditation, and the nature of creation:
"...So, we are enquiring into what makes a bird. What is creation behind all this? Are you waiting for me to describe it, go into it? You want me to go into it? Why (From the audience: To understand what creation is). Why do you ask that? Because I asked? No description can ever describe the origin. The origin is nameless; the origin is absolutely quiet, it's not whirring about making noise. Creation is something that is most holy, that's the most sacred thing in life, and if you have made a mess of your life, change it. Change it today, not tomorrow. If you are uncertain, find out why and be certain. If your thinking is not straight, think straight, logically. Unless all that is prepared, all that is settled, you can't enter into this world, into the world of creation."
Krishnamurti was also concerned about his legacy, about being unwittingly turned into some personage whose teachings had been handed down to special individuals, rather than the world at large. He did not want anybody to pose as an interpreter of the teaching. He warned his associates on several occasions that they were not to present themselves as spokesmen on his behalf, or as his successors after his death.
A few days before his death, in a final statement, he emphatically declared that "nobody" - among his associates, or the general public - had understood what had happened to him (as the conduit of the teaching), nor had they understood the teaching itself. He added that the "immense energy" operating in his lifetime would be gone with his death, again implying the impossibility of successors. However, he offered hope by stating that people could approach that energy and gain a measure of understanding "...if they live the teachings". In prior discussions he had compared himself with Thomas Edison, implying that he did the hard work, and now all was needed by others was a flick of the switch. In another instance he talked of Columbus going through an arduous journey to discover the New World, whereas now, it could easily be reached by jet; the ultimate implication being that even if Krishnamurti was in some way "special", in order to arrive at his level of understanding, others didn't need to be.
J. Krishnamurti died on February 17, 1986, at the age of 90, from pancreatic cancer. His remains were cremated and scattered by friends and former associates in the three countries where he had spent most of his life: India, England, and the United States of America.
recurrent themes
a) knowledge
Krishnamurti constantly emphasized the right place of thought in daily life. But he also pointed out the dangers of thought when it becomes knowledge that acts as a calcified projection of the past. According to Krishnamurti, such action distorts our perception and full understanding of the world we live in, and more specifically, the relationships that define it. Some excerpts:
"How is the mind which functions on knowledge – how is the brain which is recording all the time – to end, to see the importance of recording and not let it move in any other direction? Very simply: you insult me, you hurt me, by word, gesture, by an actual act; that leaves a mark on the brain which is memory. That memory is knowledge, that knowledge is going to interfere in my meeting you next time – obviously. ... Knowledge is necessary to act in the sense of my going home from here to the place I live; I must have knowledge for this; I must have knowledge to speak English; I must have knowledge to write a letter and so on. Knowledge as function, mechanical function, is necessary. Now if I use that knowledge in my relationship with you, another human being, I am bringing about a barrier, a division between you and me, namely the observer. That is, knowledge, in relationship, in human relationship, is destructive. That is knowledge which is the tradition, the memory, the image, which the mind has built about you, that knowledge is separative and therefore creates conflict in our relationship."
"The brain has been trained to record for in that recording there is safety, security, a sense of vitality; in that recording the mind creates the image about oneself. And that image will constantly get hurt. Is it possible to live without a single image about yourself, or about your husband, wife, children, or about the politicians, the priests, or about the ideal? It is possible, and if it is not found you will always be getting hurt, always living in a pattern in which there is no freedom. When you give complete attention there is no recording. It is only when there is inattention that you record. That is: you flatter me; I like it; the liking at that moment is inattention therefore recording takes place. But if when you flatter me I listen to it completely without any reaction, then there is no center which records."
"The brain is the source of thought. The brain is matter and thought is matter. Can the brain – with all its reactions and its immediate responses to every challenge and demand – can the brain be very still? It is not a question of ending thought, but of whether the brain can be completely still? This stillness is not physical death. See what happens when the brain is completely still."
b) fear and pleasure
Fear and pleasure were lifelong themes in his public talks. The following is an excerpt from his talk in San Diego in 1970.
“Fear is always in relation to something; it does not exist by itself. There is fear of what happened yesterday in relation to the possibility of its repetition tomorrow; there is always a fixed point from which relationship takes place. How does fear come into this? I had pain yesterday; there is the memory of it and I do not want it again tomorrow. Thinking about the pain of yesterday, thinking which involves the memory of yesterday’s pain, projects the fear of having pain again tomorrow. So it is thought that brings about fear. Thought breeds fear; thought also cultivates pleasure. To understand fear you must also understand pleasure – they are interrelated; without understanding one you cannot understand the other. This means that one cannot say ‘I must only have pleasure and no fear’; fear is the other side of the coin which is called pleasure.
Thinking with the images of yesterday’s pleasure, thought imagines that you may not have that pleasure tomorrow; so thought engenders fear. Thought tries to sustain pleasure and thereby nourishes fear.
Thought has separated itself as the analyzer and the thing to be analyzed; they are both parts of thought playing tricks upon itself. In doing all this it is refusing to examine the unconscious fears; it brings in time as a means of escaping fear and yet at the same time sustains fear.”
c) meditation
Krishnamurti used the term "meditation" to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind, or to consciously achieve a specific goal or state. He dealt with the subject of meditation in numerous public talks and discussions.
“A mind that is in meditation is concerned only with meditation, not with the meditator. The meditator is the observer, the senser, the thinker, the experiencer, and when there is the experiencer, the thinker, then he is concerned with reaching out, gaining, achieving, experiencing. And that thing which is timeless cannot be experienced. There is no experience at all. There is only that which is not nameable.”
“You know, in all this there are various powers like clairvoyance, reading somebody’s thought – which is the most disgusting thing to do: it is like reading letters that are private. There are various powers. You know what I am talking about, don’t you? You call them siddhis, don’t you? Do you know that all these things are like candles in the sun? When there is no sun there is darkness, and then the candle and the light of the candle become very important. But when there is the sun, the light, the beauty, the clarity, then all these powers, these siddhis – developing various centres, chakras, kundalini, you know all that business – are like candlelight; they have no value at all. And when you have that light, you don’t want anything else.”
"Meditation is one of the greatest arts in life-perhaps the greatest, and one cannot possibly learn it from anybody, that is the beauty of it. It has no technique and therefore no authority. When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy-if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation."
“Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.”
“Meditation is the emptying of the mind of all thought, for thought and feeling dissipate energy. They are repetitive, producing mechanical activities which are a necessary part of existence. But they are only part, and thought and feeling cannot possibly enter into the immensity of life. Quite a different approach is necessary, not the path of habit, association and the known; there must be freedom from these. Meditation is the emptying of the mind of the known. It cannot be done by thought or by the hidden prompting of thought, nor by desire in the form of prayer, nor through the self-effacing hypnotism of words, images, hopes, and vanities. All these have to come to an end, easily, without effort and choice, in the flame of awareness.”
d) education
Krishnamurti founded several schools around the world. When asked, he enumerated the following as his educational aims:
1. Global outlook: A vision of the whole as distinct from the part; there should never be a sectarian outlook, but always a holistic outlook free from all prejudice.
2. Concern for man and the environment: Humanity is part of nature, and if nature is not cared for, it will boomerang on man. Only the right education, and deep affection between people everywhere, will resolve many problems including the environmental challenges.
3. Religious spirit, which includes the scientific temper: The religious mind is alone, not lonely. It is in communion with people and nature.
e) the world crisis
To Krishnamurti, the world crisis and its solution are the equal responsibility of every individual, everywhere. He often underscored this point by telling his audience, "you are the world", asserting that ultimately there is no escape from the fact that every individual can help in healing the world - by first healing themselves. Some excerpts:
"And as we are-the world is. That is, if we are greedy, envious, competitive, our society will be competitive, envious, greedy, which brings misery and war. The State is what we are. To bring about order and peace, we must begin with ourselves and not with society, not with the State, for the world is ourselves"..."If we would bring about a sane and happy society we must begin with ourselves and not with another, not outside of ourselves, but with ourselves."
"If you are not at all concerned with the world but only with your personal salvation, following certain beliefs and superstitions, following gurus, then I am afraid it will be impossible for you and the speaker to communicate with each other. We are not concerned at all with private personal salvation but we are concerned, earnestly, seriously, with what the human mind has become, what humanity is facing. We are concerned at looking at this world and what a human being living in this world has to do, what is his role?"
“The present crisis is different because we are dealing not with money, not with tangible things but with ideas. The crisis is in the field of thought, of ideas, of intellect. Before, evil was recognized as evil, murder was recognized as murder, but now murder is a means to achieve a noble result. You justify the wrong means through the intellect. When intellect has the upper hand in human life, it brings an unprecedented crisis. The other cause of this unprecedented crisis is the extraordinary importance man is giving to sensate values - to property, to name, to caste, to country.”
influence
Krishnamurti's lasting influence is hard to gauge in an objective way; there is no organizational or other entity based on his philosophy, whose progress can be measured. His insistence that there be no successors or interpreters has so far prevented any individual or group from claiming to represent a continuity, or a unique understanding, of his philosophy. Krishnamurti himself remarked in 1929, at the dissolution of the Order of the Star, that he was not interested in numbers, stating: "If there are only five people who will listen, who will live, who have their faces turned towards eternity, it will be sufficient."
Interest in him and his work has persisted in the years since his death. Many books, as well as audio, video, and computer materials, remain in print and are carried by major online and traditional retailers. The four official Foundations continue with the maintenance of archives, dissemination of the teachings in an increasing number of languages, new conversions to digital and other media, development of websites, sponsoring of television programs, and with organizing meetings and dialogues of interested persons around the world. According to communications and press releases from the Foundations, their mailing lists, and individuals' inquiries, continue to grow. The various schools and educational institutions also continue to grow, with new projects added alongside their declared goal of holistic education. There are also active unofficial Krishnamurti Committees operating in several countries.
Since his death, biographies, reminiscences, research papers, critical examinations, and book-length studies of Krishnamurti and his philosophy have continued to appear. Cursory (and necessarily incomplete) examination of internet search traffic and group discussion forums indicates that among similar topics, interest on Krishnamurti remains high.
Because of his ideas and his era, Krishnamurti has come to be seen as an exemplar of those spiritual teachers who disavow formal rituals and dogma. His conception of truth as a "pathless land", with the possibility of immediate liberation, is mirrored in teachings as diverse as those of est, Bruce Lee, Barry Long, and the Dalai Lama.
Krishnamurti was acquainted with, and (by their admission) influenced the works of, the mythologist Joseph Campbell, artists Jackson Pollock and Beatrice Wood, educator Terrence Webster-Doyle and counter-culture author Alan Watts. Eckhart Tolle, author and speaker on spiritual subjects, and well-known self-help lecturer/author Deepak Chopra, both claimed Krishnamurti as one of their influences. Writer/philosopher Iris Murdoch also met with Krishnamurti, while Live's album Mental Jewelry is influenced by Krishnamurti's ideas.
In India, with its long tradition of wandering "holy" men, hermits, and independent religious teachers, Krishnamurti attracted the attention (and occasionally the unwanted admiration) of large numbers of people in public lectures and personal interviews. He was, and is presently, considered a "great teacher" by such diverse religious figures as the respected mystic Ramana Maharshi, the spiritual teacher Anandamayi Ma, as well as figures more well-known to the West such as Osho. Spiritual teacher Vimala Thakar also met with Krishnamurti in 1960.
As was also often the case elsewhere, Krishnamurti additionally attracted the interest of the mainstream religious establishment in India. He was friendly, and had a number of discussions with, well known Hindu and Buddhist scholars and leaders. Several of these discussions were later published as chapters in various Krishnamurti books. Although Krishnamurti had a special tenderness for the true sannyasi or Buddhist monk, his criticism of their rituals, disciplines, and practices was devastating.
Twentieth-century gnostic philosopher and occultist Samael Aun Weor praised Krishnamurti's teachings, stating that his "inner spirit" was a "highly realized Buddha", although he questioned his handling by the theosophists and its effect on his spiritual development.
Any discussion of influence, however expansive, deserves to be weighed against Krishnamurti's own measure of success i.e., whether individuals really understand, and therefore "live and breathe", the teaching. Regarding this measure of influence or success, the last, and only, definitive public statement belongs to Krishnamurti himself. In a dismal prognosis, delivered 10 days prior his death in 1986, his words were simple, and emphatic: "nobody" – among his associates or the world at large – had understood Krishnamurti, his life, or the teaching.
criticism
A number of people questioned whether Krishnamurti's attitudes were conditioned by privilege, as he was supported, even pampered, by devoted followers starting as far back as his "discovery" by the theosophists. Helen Nearing, who had known Krishnamurti in the 1920s, made such an assessment in an autobiographical volume (Loving and Leaving the Good Life, see Other Biographies section below). She also thought that he was at such an "elevated" level that he was incapable of forming normal personal relationships.
In her 1991 book, Lives in the Shadow with J. Krishnamurti (see Other Biographies), Radha Rajagopal Sloss, the daughter of estranged Krishnamurti associates Rosalind and Desikacharya Rajagopal, wrote of Krishnamurti's relationship with her parents, including a secret affair between Krishnamurti and Rosalind which lasted for many years. The public revelation was received with surprise and consternation by many individuals, and was also dealt with in a rebuttal volume of biography by Mary Lutyens (Krishnamurti and the Rajagopals, also see Other Biographies).
selected publications
Apart from a few noted exceptions - see subsection below - the majority of Krishnamurti's books are edited transcripts of his talks and discussions, arranged either thematically, chronologically, by location, or in a combination of the above. Unless otherwise specified, the entries have been arranged by the publication date provided. (Format: Title, year of first publication, different editions: ISBN, notes)
a) Krishnamurti on Krishnamurti
* Krishnamurti's Notebook, 1976, Krishnamurti Publications of America expanded 2004 edition: ISBN 1-888004-63-0. Published journal that Krishnamurti kept between June 1961 and March 1962. [With the publication of this book, for the first time the general public was informed about the so-called "process", a strange condition that having started in the 1920s, intermittently affected Krishnamurti throughout his life].
* Krishnamurti's Journal, 1982, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-064841-4, LCC B5134.K765A34 1982. A personal journal, that was started in 1973 and kept intermittently until 1975.
* Krishnamurti to Himself: His Last Journal, 1987, HarperCollins 1993 paperback: ISBN 0-06-250649-8. Transcribed from audio tape recordings made at his home in the Ojai Valley between February 1983 and March 1984.
b) list of Books
As noted previously, various official Krishnamurti-related entities have published, and continue to publish, transcripts of Krishnamurti's talks and discussions. These verbatim reports and transcriptions are not included here. See also Collected Works section below. The following is not a complete listing.
* At the Feet of the Master: Towards Discipleship, 1910, Quest Books 2001 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0803-4. [The author of this book is also listed as "Alcyone". There is considerable scepticism among Krishnamurti's biographers and others about Krishnamurti's true role in the production of this and other works by so-called "Alcyone". Among other objections, a consensus of the sceptics considers such works as Theosophical literature.]
* The Immortal Friend, 1928, New York, Boni & Liveright hardcover: no ISBN, Kessinger Publishing 2004 paperback edition: ISBN 1417978554. Poetry.
* Life in Freedom, 1928, New York, H. Liveright: no ISBN, Satori Resources 1986 reprint: ISBN 0-937277-00-2. Compiled from camp-fire addresses given in Benares, Ojai, and Ommen during 1928.
* Education and the Significance of Life, 1953 Krishnamurti Foundation Trust, HarperSanFrancisco 1981 edition: ISBN 0-06-064876-7.
* The First and Last Freedom, 1954, HarperSanFrancisco 1975 reprint: ISBN 0-06-064831-7.
* Commentaries on Living: Series One, 1956, New York, Harper, Quest Books 1994 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0390-3. Series is subtitled From the notebooks of J. Krishnamurti, D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Commentaries on Living: Series Two, 1958, New York, Harper, Quest Books 1967 edition: ISBN 0-8356-0415-2. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Commentaries on Living: Series Three, 1960, Quest Books 1967: ISBN 0-8356-0402-0. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Life Ahead: On Learning and the Search for Meaning, 1963, Harper & Row, New World Library 2005 edition: ISBN 1-57731-517-0.
* Think on These Things, 1964, Harper Perennial 1989 reprint: ISBN 0-06-091609-5. D. Rajagopal, editor.
* Freedom from the Known, 1969, HarperSanFrancisco 1975 reprint: ISBN 0-06-064808-2. M. Lutyens, editor.
* Talks with American Students 1968, 1970, Shambhala Publications: ISBN 0-87773-021-0.
* The Only Revolution, 1970, Gollancz hardcover: ISBN 0-575-00387-1. M. Lutyens, editor.
* The Urgency of Change, 1970, HarperCollins hardcover: ISBN 0060648724. M. Lutyens, editor.
* The Flight of the Eagle, 1971, HarperCollins 1973 paperback edition: ISBN 0060916109. Subtitled Authentic report of talks and discussions in London, Amsterdam, Paris, and Saanen, Switzerland.
* The Impossible Question, 1972, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-0606-4838-X.
* You Are the World: Authentic Reports of Talks and Discussions in American Universities, 1972, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-080303-7, Krishnamurti Foundation India 2001 edition: ISBN 81-87326-02-6.
* The Awakening of Intelligence, 1973, Harper & Row paperback 1987: ISBN 0-06-064834-1. G. & C. Wingfield Digby, editors.
* Beyond Violence, 1973, HarperCollins College Div.: ISBN 0-06-064839-2.
* Krishnamurti on Education, 1974, New Delhi, Orient Longman, Krishnamurti Foundation of America 2001 edition: ISBN 81-87326-00-X. Talks and discussions with students and teachers of Rishi Valley and Rajghat schools in India.
* Beginnings of Learning, 1975, London: Gollancz: ISBN 0-5750-1928-X. Edited transcripts of Krishnamurti's discussions on education with students and staff at the Brockwood Park School, England.
* Truth and Actuality, 1977, Victor Gollancz, London: ISBN 0-575-02325-2, HarperSanFrancisco 1980 edition: ISBN 0-06-064875-9.
* The Wholeness of Life, 1978, London, Gollancz: ISBN 0-0606-4874-0, HarperCollins 1981 paperback edition: ISBN 0-06-064868-6. Abridgement of discussions held between Krishnamurti, physicist David Bohm, and psychiatrist David Shainbert.
* Meditations, 1979, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-0606-4851-1, Shambhala Publications 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57062-941-2. Compilation of quotes/writings on meditation, Evelyne Blau, editor.
* From Darkness to Light: Poems and Parables: The Collected Works of Krishnamurti Volume One, 1980, Harper & Row: ISBN 0-06-064832-5. This is completely different from the Collected Works Volume 1 listed below.
* Exploration into Insight, 1980, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064811-2.
* The Ending of Time, 1985, Harper & Row, San Francisco: ISBN 0-06-064796-5. Discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* The Way of Intelligence, 1985, Krishnamurti Foundation India: ISBN 81-87326-47-6.
* The Future of Humanity: A Conversation, 1986, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064797-3. Further discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* Last Talks at Saanen, 1985, 1987, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-064798-1.
* The Future Is Now: Last Talks in India, 1989, HarperCollins: ISBN 0-06-250484-3. Krishnamurti's last public talks.
* Meeting Life: Writings and Talks on Finding Your Path Without Retreating from Society, 1991, HarperSanFrancisco: ISBN 0-06-250526-2.
* Freedom, Love, and Action, 1994, Shambhala 2001 paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2826-2. Based on talks given at Brockwood Park School, England.
* Total Freedom: The Essential Krishnamurti, 1996, HarperSanFrancisco: ISBN 0-06-064880-5. Introduction to Krishnamurti and selections from the breadth of his works, M. Cadogan, A. Kishbaugh, M. Lee, and R. McCoy editors.
* Limits of Thought: Discussions, 1999, Routledge, London: ISBN 0-415-19398-2. More discussions with the physicist David Bohm.
* This Light in Oneself: True Meditation, 1999, Shambhala Publications: ISBN 1-57062-442-9.
* To Be Human, 2000, Shambhala, paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2596-4. David Skitt, editor.
* Can Humanity Change?, 2003, Shambhala, paperback: ISBN 1-5706-2826-2. Subtitled J. Krishnamurti in dialogue with Buddhists, David Skitt, editor.
* The First Step is the Last Step, 2004, Krishnamurti Foundation India: ISBN 8187326565.
* As One Is, 2007, Hohm Press: ISBN 1890772623. Subtitled To free the mind of all conditioning. Collects the 1955 Ojai public talks.
c) the collected works of J. Krishnamurti
This series consists of previously published talks, discussions, question and answer sessions, and other writings, covering the period from 1933-1967. Originally published as a stand-alone series, it has become part of The Complete Teachings Project, an effort by the Krishnamurti Foundations to create a cohesively edited collection of the entire body of Krishnamurti's works from 1933 onwards. It is estimated that the Complete Teachings would run to over 80 volumes.
* Volume I (1933-1934): The Art of Listening, 1991, Krishnamurti Foundation of America: ISBN 0-8403-6341-9
* Volume II (1934-1935): What Is the Right Action?, 1991, Krishnamurti Publications of America: ISBN 1-888004-32-0. Edward Weston, editor.
* Volume 3 (1936-1944): The Mirror of Relationship, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company: ISBN 0-8403-6236-6
* Volume 4 (1945-1948): The Observer Is the Observed, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6237-4
* Volume 5 (1948-1949): Choiceless Awareness, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6238-2
* Volume 6 (1949-1952): The Origin of Conflict, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6262-5
* Volume 7 (1952-1953): Tradition and Creativity, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6257-9
* Volume 8 (1953-1955): What Are You Seeking?, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6266-8
* Volume 9 (1955-1956): The Answer is in the Problem, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6260-9
* Volume 10 (1956-1957): A Light to Yourself, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6268-4
* Volume 11 (1958-1960): Crisis in Consciousness, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6272-2
* Volume 12 (1961): There is No Thinker, Only Thought, 1991, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6286-2
* Volume 13 (1962-1963): A Psychological Revolution, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6287-0
* Volume 14 (1963-1964): The New Mind, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6288-9
* Volume 15 (1964-1965): The Dignity of Living, 1992, Krishnamurti Foundation of America: ISBN 0-8403-6282-X
* Volume 16 (1965-1966): The Beauty of Death, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6307-9
* Volume 17 (1966-1967): Perennial Questions, 1992, Kendall/Hunt Publishing: ISBN 0-8403-6314-1
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